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Intro Philosophy > Final Exam Overview > Flashcards

Final Exam Overview Flashcards

Pass my final exam! I mean, get an A!

1
Q
  1. Two sovereign masters over society. (Bentham)
A

Pain and pleasure.

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2
Q
  1. The object of the principle of utility. (Bentham)
A

The object is to rear the fabric of felicity by the hands of reason and flaw.

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3
Q
  1. Describe the principle of utility. (Bentham)
A

The principle approves or disapproves every action whatsoever, on the basis of whether or not it augments or diminishes happiness of a party whose interest is in question. It can be applied to every individual and the government.

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4
Q
  1. Two ways the Principle may oppose utility. (Bentham)
A
  • Ascetism, which augments pain.
  • Sympathy and antipathy, which causes us to decide whether things are right or wrong based on whether we like or dislike them.
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5
Q
  1. What must we do in order to follow principle of utility, since we cannot run through all the calculations? (Bentham)
A

We must consider intensity, duration, certainty/uncertainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent.

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6
Q
  1. What’s the one thing that is called good without qualification? (Kant)
A

A good will.

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7
Q

Three propositions of morality. (Kant)

A
  • a. For an action to be good, it must come of duty.
  • b. If an action has moral worth, it must be free from inclination (a view to the end result).
  • c. It must be done out of respect to law.
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8
Q

Define hypothetical and categorical imperatives. (Kant)

A
  • Hypothetical: Always commands with a result ending in desire. It is only good for a purpose.
  • Categorically: Command that tell us the action in and of itself is good. Objectively necessary.
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9
Q

One categorical imperative of morality. (Kant)

A

A categorical imperative of morality is purely a priori. It is an act only according to that maxim by which you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law.

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10
Q

Practical categorical imperative of morality. (Kant)

A

Act so that you treat humanity always as an end and never as a means only, whether in your own person or that of another.

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11
Q

How do we get the practical law? (Kant)

A

Through reason.

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12
Q

What are the differences between psychological and ethical altruism?

A
  • Psychological altruism - People “naturally” act for each other’s sakes.
  • Ethical altruism - Says that people ought to act with each other’s interests in mind (The Golden Rule)
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13
Q

What points are illustrated by the shepherd in The Ring?

A

The point of the story shows that if we were truly invisible, man may not always act for the sake of other people’s interests, and would enslave himself to his appetites. Basically, the actions of the just would be as the actions of the unjust.

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14
Q

Three kinds of life.

A
  • The life of enjoyment (pleasure).
  • The life of the statesman (to seek honor).
  • The contemplative life (philosophy).
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15
Q

What is the function of man?

A

The exercise of his vital faculties (or soul) on one side in obedience to reason and on the other side with reason. AKA Live life of rational nature and do it well and beautifully, in accordance to proper excellence.

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16
Q

Virtues are means between streams. List moral virtues by Aristotle.

A
  • Wisdom.
  • Courage.
  • Temperance.
  • Generosity.
  • Liberality.
  • Munificence.
  • Sincerity.
  • Modesty.
  • Good temper.
  • Right ambition.
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17
Q

What is Locke’s definition of an animal in “Personal Identity?”

A

An animal is a living, organized body.

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18
Q

What is Locke’s description of a human?

A

A human is a living, organized body of a certain shape.

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19
Q

In “Personal Identity” Locke defines the word ‘person.’ What is his description of a person?

A

A thinking intelligent being who is able to reflect, and is conscious of being the same self in past places and times.

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20
Q

What is it, according to Locke, that gives each person a personal identity?

A

A consciousness.

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21
Q

According to Locke, how far back does a person’s identity reach?

A

A person’s identity extends as far as he or she’s consciousness extends.

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22
Q

Locke also offers a definiton of self. How does Locke define ‘self?’

A

A self is mental, physical and spiritual, able to feel pain and pleasure, happiness and misery, and so is concern for itself.

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23
Q

According to Locke, when is a person’s body a part of their identity?

A

If a person is able to extend their consciousness to their past, then they are a person. A person is a body united with consciousness.

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24
Q

Locke asserts that identity consists not in the identity of substance, but in the identity of what?

A

The idea of consciousness.

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25
Q

According to Locke, how is it that we can be confident that we will have a future?

A

We are conscious of our past and present, so we are confident that we will be conscious in our future.

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26
Q

What, according to Locke, is the forensic term that serves as a name for the self?

A

A person.

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27
Q

According to Smart, what is it that science is increasingly causing us to see organisms as kind of mechanisms?

A

Physio-chemical mechanisms.

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28
Q

This view means that one day we will be able to explain human behavior in a certain type of terms. What type of terms might be used to explain human behavior?

A

Mechanistic terms.

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29
Q

What is the object of Smart’s paper “Sensations and Brain Processes?”

A

The object is to prove that there is no compelling argument for dualism.

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30
Q

What is the thesis of “Sensations and Brain Processes?”

A

Sensations are nothing more than brain processes.

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31
Q

When using the word ‘is,’ Smart states that he is using it in a particular sense. What sense is this?

A

“Is” is used in a sense of strict identity. An example is to say that 7 is identical to the smallest prime number that is greater than 5.

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32
Q

Smart holds that, given that there is no cogent philosophical argument for dualism, we must accept his theory of brain processes on the basis of two principles. What are these principles?

A

Simplicity and parsimony.

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33
Q

Nagel asserts that conscious experience is a widespread phenomenon. What does it mean if an organism has a conscious experience?

A

It means that there is something it’s like to be that organism.

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34
Q

Nagel argues that each organism’s conscious experience is unique because of the subjective character of such an experience. What is it that gives these experiences their subjective character?

A

A single point of view.

35
Q

When we ask what it is like to be a bat, we are, according to Nagel, asking this question of whom?

A

A bat.

36
Q

According to Nagel, how does the fact that the facts of experience are accessible only from one point of view effect the argument tha the true character of experience can be explained in physcial terms?

A

If sensations are merely brain processes, we would be able to define them.

37
Q

What, according to Nagel, is required if we are to understand the hypothesis that a mental event is a physical event?

A

We require more than an understanding of the word “is.”

38
Q

What, according to Descartes, are the reasons for doubting the knowledge gained through our senses?

A
  • Our senses can deceive us.
  • We cannot always distinguish dreams from waking thoughts.
39
Q

Instead of God, who is incapable of deceiving us, who Descartes says is responsible fore the deceptions we have all been fooled by?

A

An evil genius.

40
Q

In “Meditation Two,” Descartes uses a three step argument to prove his own existence. Recreate this argument.

A

I doubt, therfore I am. God exists, and would not deceive the meditator. The primary attribute of body is extension.

41
Q

In “Meditation Three,” Descartes makes the distinction between objective and formal reality. Define these two realities.

A

Objective reality is an idea within me. Formal reality has form and exists outside of me.

42
Q

Descartes has divided thought into three classes. List and describe three classes of thought.

A
  1. Volitions/affects - will and emotion
  2. Ideas - images of objects
  3. Judgments - interpretations, prone to err

All of these are objective.

43
Q

In “Meditation Six,” Descartes asserts that imagination is different than pure intellection. How does he distinguish the two?

A

Imagination is non-linguistic and exists as something like a mental photograph, where pure intellection is something that is not necessarily pictured.

44
Q

To prove that material objects exist, Descartes discusses the active and passive faculties. Define these two faculties.

A

An active faculty brings about or produces the idea while the passive faculty receives the idea.

45
Q

What is Descartes’ argument for the existence of material objects.

A
  1. God is no deceiver.
  2. He created me and gave me reason which tells me that my ideas come from external corporeal things.
  3. If they do not come from external objects, then God must be a deceiver. But this is an absurdity.
  4. Material objects exist.
46
Q

What is the foundation of all knowledge according to Locke?

A

Experience.

47
Q

According to Locke, all knowledge comes through two fountains or processes. What are these two processes?

A

Sensation and reflection.

48
Q

Simple ideas are the materials of all knowledge, according to Locke. Define simple idea.

A

A simple idea is that of which is clear and distinct, and cannot be confused with another idea.

49
Q

Locke holds that there are four ways that the understanding is furnished with simple ideas. List them.

A
  1. The idea is derived from one sense.
  2. The idea is derived from multiple senses.
  3. The idea is derived from reflection.
  4. The idea is derived from both sensation and reflection.
50
Q

List the operations/faculties of the mind that Locke defines.

A
  • Compositions
  • Relations
  • Abstraction
  • Differentiation
  • Enlarging
51
Q

What are the operations that produce complex ideas, according to Locke?

A

Combining two simple ideas, comparing relations between two complex ideas and separating from particular to general.

52
Q

Locke asserts that knowledge is the agreement or disagreement of our ideas. Name the four ways that we can see this agreement or disagreement.

A
  1. Relative
  2. Identity/diversity
  3. Coexistence/non-coexistence - same or different qualities
  4. Actual real existence
53
Q

According to Locke there are three degrees of knowledge. List the degrees of knowledge and wjat eacj pme gives us knewledge of.

A
  1. Intuitive - identity/existence
  2. Demonstrative - God
  3. Sensitive - material objects
54
Q

For knowledge to be a priori, it must, according to Kant, satisfy certain criteria. What are the criteria?

A

The proposition must be necessary, and/or it must be thought in strict universality, such as mathematics.

55
Q

For Kant, there are three “unavoidable problems set by reason.” List them.

A
  1. God
  2. Freedom
  3. Immortality
56
Q

Describe the difference between analytic and synthetic judgments.

A
  • Analytic proposition: A proposition whose predicate concept is contained in its subject concept
  • Synthetic proposition: A proposition whose predicate concept is not contained in its subject concept
57
Q

For Kant, are judgments of experience analytic or synthetic?

A

Synthetic.

58
Q

What advantage or help is lacking for a priori synthetic judgments that is found in all other synthetic judgments?

A

We do not need to experience it, but it is contained as a principle.

59
Q

According to Kant, “in all theoretical sciences of reason synthetic a priori judgments are contained as principles.” What are the three sciences of reason that Kant points to as proof of this reality?

A
  • Mathematics: A number does not contain the concept of a sum, or dividend.
  • Metaphysics: The law of motion.
  • Natural science: We must have started somewhere.
60
Q

Kant asserts that all mathematical judgments are a priori synthetic judgments. How does he defend this assertion?

A

When we add two numbers together (i.e. 2+2), we expect to arrive at a sum (4). We cannot experience this sum, but we know it is correct. That number itself does not contain the concept of a sum, therefore it is a priori synthetic.

61
Q

How does Kant answer the question as to whether or not a priori synthetic judgments are possible. (General problem of pure reason)

A

There are synthetic judgments such as cause and effect, where no analysis will produce the predicate.

62
Q

Who said an unexamined life is not worth living?

A

Socrates.

63
Q

Based on its Greek roots, what does the word philosophy mean?

A

The love of wisdom.

64
Q

List the six main branches of philosophy.

A
  1. Logic
  2. Ethics
  3. Metaphysics
  4. Epistemology
  5. Aesthetics
  6. Political
65
Q

What are the three revolutions of thought that have characterized western philosophy?

A
  • EPISTEMOLOGY
  • LINGUISTICS
  • MYTHICAL TO RATIONAL
66
Q

Who is known as the father of modern philosophy?

A

Rene Descartes.

67
Q

In his Discourse on Method, Descartes puts forth four basic rules that would define philosophy for many years. List these rules.

A
  1. Never accept anything as the truth.
  2. Divide difficulties into as many parts as possible.
  3. Carry out reasonings in due order.
  4. Omit nothing - keep reviews general.
68
Q

Briefly define each of the following terms: theist, atheist and agnostic.

A
  • Theist: A belief in one single God.
  • Atheist: Refusal to believe in God.
  • Agnostic: Acceptance of ignorance. Not knowing if God exists.
69
Q

The three main arguments for the existence of God are the cosmological argument, the argument from design and the ontological argument. Describe each of these.

A
  • Ontological: A thing than which nothing greater can be conceived cannot be conceived to not exist and so it must exist. (God)
  • Teleological: Purpose and design exist in nature; there must be an artificer.
  • Cosmological: Everything that begins to exist has a cause of its existence.
70
Q

In Summer Theologica Acquinas outlines five arguments to prove the existence of God. List these five arguments.

A
  1. Nature of efficient cause.
  2. Argument of motion.
  3. Possibility v. necessity.
  4. Gradation.
  5. Governance.
71
Q

In his ontological argument of God, Anselm puts forth a definition of God that has influenced the way we understand the concept of God. How does Anselm define God?

A

That of which nothing greater can be conceived.

72
Q

In “Meditation Four” Descartes sets forth an argument for the existence of God that is analogous to the argument for the triangle. Outline this argument for the existence of God.

A

Descartes argued that the essence of a triangle is a ‘three sided plane figure’. To say that God does not exist is rather like saying ‘a triangle does not have three sides’ or that the internal angels don’t add up to 180 degrees. In the same way, existence cannot be separated from the concept of God.

73
Q

Kant, in the Impossibility of an Ontological Proof of Existence of God, puts forth the notion of a “determining predicate.” What does he mean by this?

A

All subject class are predicates. It gives a concept to the subject.

74
Q

Kant also argues that existence or being cannot be a determining predicate. Why?

A

That something “is” does not describe it or give it a characteristic, such as saying, “God is almighty” does.

75
Q

Briefly outline Clarke’s argument for the existence of a necessary being.

A
  1. Every being that exists is either contingent or necessary.
  2. Not every being can be contingent.
  3. Therefore, there exists a necessary being on which the contingent beings depend.
  4. A necessary being, on which all contingent things depend, is what we mean by “God”.
  5. Therefore, God exists.
76
Q

What is Hume’s main objection to the existence of a necessary being?

A

Any statement concerning existence can be denied. Hume writes, “The words, therefore “necessary existence,” have no meaning, or which is the same thing, none of which is consistent.” Whatever we can conceive as existent, we can also conceive as nonexistent.

77
Q

Briefly descrive Gould’s argument in “The Panda’s Thumb.”

A

Gould says that the design argument is faulty because a panda originally did not have a thumb. This problem interfered with the species’ survival because they could not peel and eat bamboo. So, why would God create an organism that did not have the necessary tools for survival?

78
Q

In Evil and Omnipitence, Mackie presents the problem of evil, in its simplest form, as containing three propositions. What are these three propositions?

A
  1. God is omnipitent.
  2. God is wholly good.
  3. Evil exists.
79
Q

List the four fallacious solutions to the problem of evil that Mackie discusses.

A
  • Good cannot exist without evil.
  • Evil is a means to good.
  • This is the best possible state.
  • Evil is due to human free will.
80
Q

In The Will to Believe, James makes clear the thesis he is defending in this address. What is this thesis?

A

If you cannot justify a genuine option intellectually, we use a passional nature.

81
Q

What dowes James (The Will to Believe) mean by a genuine option?

A

It is forced, momentous and live.

82
Q

Describe the watch analogy used by Paley in his argument from design in Natural Theology.

A

The watchmaker argument is a teleological argument for the existence of God. It states that design implies a designer. The intricate design of the watch is analogous to the intricate design and order of the world and nature.

83
Q

How does Flew demonstrate that there is a major flaw in the argument from design?

A

The fine-tuning of the universe is too precise to be a result of chance. Order may not be necessary for design.

84
Q
A

Intro Philosophy (1 decks)

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