final exam key content Flashcards
1
Q
Q: What is the “and” rule in probability and how do we calculate it?
A
A: The probability of two things where both happen. This and that. We multiply probabilities together
2
Q
Q: What is the “or” rule in probability and how to we calculate it?
A
A: The probability of two thing where only one is possible. this or that - Add the probabilities
3
Q
Q: What are phonemes
A
A: the smallest unit of sound in a language that can change the meaning of a word
4
Q
Q: What are morphemes?
A
A: the smallest unit of meaning in a language. It can be a whole word or a part of a word that carries meaning
5
Q
Q: What is syntax?
A
A: rules of how you say things- word order
6
Q
Q: What is semantics?
A
A: meaning
7
Q
Q: What is phonology?
A
A: sound structure of sentences
8
Q
Q: What are the three ways phonology is distinguished?
A
A: voicing, manner of production, place of articulation
9
Q
Q: What is voicing?
A
A: whether the vocal folds vibrate or not
10
Q
Q: What is manner of production?
A
A: whether the air is fully stopped or merely restricted
11
Q
Q: What is the place of articulation?
A
A: where in the mouth the air is restricted- closing lips, top teeth against bottom lip, tongue behind upper lip
12
Q
Q: What is the difference between content morphemes and function morphemes?
A
A: content have meaning while function change the meaning of another morpheme when they are in conjunction
13
Q
Q: What is voice onset time?
A
A: when the voicing starts in the sound
14
Q
Q: What is categorical perception?
A
A: the change from one sound to another is abrupt and not gradual
15
Q
Q: How does syntax affect meaning?
A
A: word order can change the meaning of a phrase
16
Q
Q: What is sentence parsing?
A
A: the process of determining the role of each word in a sentence to get the meaning that happens while the sentence is being heard
17
Q
Q: What are garden-path sentences?
A
A: sentences initially suggest an interpretation that is incorrect
18
Q
Q: Why does the garden-path effect occur?
A
A: natural rhythm and phrase structure, sentence parsing
19
Q
Q: What is Broca’s area responsible for?
A
A: speech production
20
Q
Q: What is Wernicke’s area responsible for?
A
A: comprehension of language
21
Q
Q: What is the difference between aphasia and agnosia in relation to language?
A
A: Aphasia: Disruptions of language processing
Agnosia: Disruption of naming
22
Q
Q: What are some characteristics of Broca’s aphasia?
A
A: grammar problems, telegraphic speech, understand but has a hard time producing
23
Q
Q: What are some characteristics of Wernicke’s aphasia?
A
A: comprehension problems, grammatically correct sentences with no meaning
24
Q
Q: What is the sapir-whorf hypothesis?
A
A: our native language determines our thoughts and perceptions
25
Q: What did the study with the Dani tribe determine about colour perception?
A: even if the Dani tribe did not have words for the focal colours they could still recognize them- evidence against sapir-worf
26
Q: What was the conclusion from the Barbara Malt study about classification of containers?
A: subjects did not differ even with different languages- evidence against sapir-whorf
27
Q: What is the McGurk effect?
A: we use visual cues to tell the difference between similar sounds
28
Q: What are linguistic metaphors?
A: words that we use that do not use their exact meaning but are known to have another meaning. Example: up = happy
29
Q: How do we use inferences to understand others?
A: infer implicit meanings that are different from what is said explicitly- words can have different meanings in different contexts
30
Q: What is the definition of mental imagery?
A: processing perceptual-like info without the actual source of perceptual info
31
Q: How do images differ from perception?
A: Perceptual things can be reinterpreted
32
Q: What are the qualities of mental images?
A: They are like pictures and have similar properties
33
Q: What were the conclusions from the Segal and Fusella study about the interference effect?
A: when imagining visuals participants were impaired detecting visual signals and same for auditory visuals and signals
34
Q: How was Segal and Fusell'as study on the interference effect done?
A: Had to imagine either a sound or light then had to detect a visual or auditory signal
35
Q: What were the conclusions from the Shepard study on mental rotation?
A: time to respond increased with more complicated rotations needed to answer the question
36
Q: What were the conclusions of the study done about image scanning done by Kosslyn?
A: cms of image strongly correlates to how long it takes to imagine travelling there
37
Q: What is zooming in and what did Kosslyn find?
A: faster response time for larger animals when asked about characteristics of an animal- people have to zoom in on the image in their mind which takes time
38
Q: What is property verification?
A: when asked abour properties of something people tend to think of highly associated things and when asked just to imagine something people think of things that take up the most space in the image
39
Q: T/F images are like perception when it comes to reinterpretation. How was it proven?
A: False. Visual stimuli must always be interpreted while images are already interpreted and cannot b re-interpreted. Proven when people were asked to draw an image from their mind that had two interpretations. People who only saw one interpretation could not reverse the image to draw the other version (they only remember the one version of the image)
40
Q: What is Baye's Theorem?
A: prescriptive model for how people should reason about probabilities as they collect relevant evidence
41
Q: Baye's theorem is made up of what three types of probability?
A: Prior, conditional, posterior
42
Q: What is prior probability?
A: what you already know without looking at the evidence
43
Q: What is conditional probability?
A: if hypothesis is true then how good is the evidence (is it true- quality of evidence)
44
Q: What is posterior probability?
A: probability after considering the evidence
45
Q: What is the Gambler's Fallacy?
A: randomness should look a certain way- does not consider independence
46
Q: What are base rates and what is base rate neglect?
A: basic or general frequency at which an event occurs in a population. It represents the likelihood of an event happening without considering any specific circumstances or additional information. Neglect is when people overlook these and use heuristics instead
47
Q: What is attribution substitution?
A: We usually don’t have base rate, or other stats about certain outcomes so we make substitutions
48
Q: What are some examples of attribution substitutions?
A: Availability, representativeness, affect, effort
49
Q: What is the rational model?
A: Assume value for all alternatives and pick the rational one
50
Q: What is another word for the rational model?
A: The normative model
51
Q: What is expected value?
A: What gives you the most in the long run. Gain minus potential loss
52
Q: What is the difference between expected value and expected utility?
A: Expected utility includes the person's preferences for different outcomes
53
Q: What are certainty effects?
A: If there is certainty then we choose the lower value- an immediate gain because most people do not like uncertainty
54
Q: What is framing?
A: the idea that the way information is presented or "framed" can influence people's decisions and perceptions
55
Q: What is loss aversion?
A: people tend to choose the riskier option when it is framed as a loss. A gain of 100 is not as good as a loss of 100 is bad (loss feels worse)
56
Q: What is risk avoidance?
A: The similar to certainty effects- people will choose the less risky option over the riskier one
57
Q: What is the representativeness heuristic?
A: we assume that each individual member of a category has the traits we associate with the category overall- we consider this over probability
58
Q: T/F The Gambler's Fallacy is an example of representativeness.
A: True
59
Q: What is the availability heuristic?
A: We use the ease to which something is brought to mind as a cue to decide what is more likely
60
Q: What is sunk cost and what other name does it go by?
A: Reluctance to give up invested time/money. The Entrapment Effect
61
Q: What is Prospect Theory?
A: Tversky & Kahneman's alternative to the rational model where objective probability is replaced with psychological probability- loss aversion, risk aversion
62
Q: What is categorical reasoning?
A: putting things in categories based on characteristics and attributes
63
Q: What is a universal affirmative
A: everything is something- All A are B (2 ways to be true)
64
Q: What is a particular affirmative?
A: some (at least one and possibly all) things are affirmative- Some B are A (4 ways to be true)
65
Q: What is a universal negative?
A: no overlap- no A are B (1 way to be true)
66
Q: What is particular negative?
A: some (at least one and possibly all) A are not B (3 ways to be true)
67
Q: How can belief bias lead to invalid conclusions?
A: We might believe something we think to be true even though there are other possible ways a statement can be true
68
Q: What words are the antecedent and the consequent in an if/then statement?
A: if is the antecedent and then is the consequent
69
Q: What is modus ponens?
A: Affirming the antecedent. If A happens then B will happen
70
Q: What is modus tollens?
A: denying the consequent. The second half did not happen
71
Q: What is affirming the consequent?
A: an invalid form that affirms the result and assumes the if is true- ignores alternatives for the result
72
Q: What is denying the antecedent?
A: an invalid form that ignores the alternatives for the results
73
Q: What is confirmation bias?
A: favouring things that confirm what we already believe
74
Q: What does the Wason Card selection task demonstrate?
A: confirmation bias
75
Q: Why is flipping the 4 card in the Wasson card task invalid?
A: it is affirming the consequent
76
Q: What do you need to do to prove the Wasson card statement true?
A: affirm the antecedent (vowel card has even number on the other side) and deny the consequent (odd number card has a consonant on the other side)
77
Q: What are the parts of a problem?
A: Initial state (givens), obstacles (means), goal
78
Q: What is the initial state?
A: where you begin before solving a problem
79
Q: What is the difference between a well-defined problem and an ill-defined problem?
A: clear/ unclear goal, givens, means, initial stat, obstacles
80
Q: What are givens?
A: Things that you have that can hurt or help (can be implicit or explicit) you solve the problem
81
Q: What are obstacles?
A: the gap or barrier that gets in your way
82
Q: What are means?
A: Steps to go from initial state to goal
83
Q: What is the goal state?
A: the end- what you want to attain
84
Q: What is Problem Space Analysis?
A: initially defining the problem space then searching it to find the solution
85
Q: What are algorithms?
A: following the exact steps to get to a guaranteed solution
86
Q: What are heuristics?
A: shortcuts that rely on knowledge
87
Q: What is an exhaustive search?
A: checking all possibilities in a problem space- best for small problem space
88
Q: What is hill climbing?
A: taking steps closer to the goal state- but not moving away
89
Q: What is Means-End Analysis?
A: dividing the problem into smaller problems then solving smaller problems- can use other problem solving methods for small problems but uses more cog resources
90
Q: What are the hobbits and orcs and tower of hanoi examples of?
A: Means-end analysis
91
Q: What is functional fixedness?
A: the tendency to be rigid in thinking about an object’s function
92
Q: What does Dunker's candle box experiment reveal?
A: functional fixedness- Participants were more likely to solve the candle problem if the tacks were not placed inside the box when the materials were presented
93
Q: What is convergent thinking?
A: an ability to spot ways in which seemingly distinct ideas might be interconnected- from out to in
94
Q: How is convergent thinking tested?
A: remote associates test- finding one word that relates to three other words
95
Q: What is divergent thinking?
A: an ability to move one’s thoughts in novel, unanticipated directions - from in to out
96
Q: How is divergent thinking tested?
A: asking participants to think of as many uses for an object as they can
97
Q: What are Wallas' stages in order?
A: Preparation, Incubation, Illumination, Verification
98
Q: What is the preparation stage?
A: gathering info you need to do the task
99
Q: What is incubation and what could be the process involved?
A: coming up with the solution after we take a break. Spreading activation
100
Q: What is illumination?
A: the aha moment when you feel like you get closer to the solution
101
Q: What are insight problems?
A: Problems that require a shift in perspective to solve- Comes with a moment of illumination before it is actually solved
102
Q: What is the caveat of the Ericcson 10 000 hours rule?
A: must be deliberate practise- one of many predictors and not a golden rule
103
Q: What did Ericcson find in his study involving violin experts?
A: highest level musicians practised for 20 hours or more per week
104
Q: What is the conclusion from the study involving chess experts and memory?
A: The better the chess player (player rating), the better they can recreate the configuration when it is wiped away after only looking at the board for 10 seconds- the effect is not seen when the positions are random
105
Q: What was the conclusion from the physics expert study?
A: Expert classifies problems with deeper features (physics principles) while novice classify based on surface features- how they look compared to how they are solved
106
Q: What does IQ stand for and how was it tested originally?
A: stands for intelligence quotient and was the ratio between mental age and chronological age
107
Q: What is Raven's Progressive Matrices and how is it beneficial?
A: task is to identify the shape the completes the pattern. It is beneficial because it can be nonverbal
108
Q: What is reliability?
A: the consistency of the measure- test and retest- people roughly have the same correlation across the lifespan
109
Q: What is validity?
A: whether a test measures what it is intended to measure
110
Q: What is predictive validity?
A: a score on a test should predict the score of another similar test- ex IQ and GPA
111
Q: What is general intelligence (g)?
A: a capacity that provides an advantage on virtually any mental task
112
Q: What are the benefits of looking at specialized intelligence?
A: predict specific performance, single number doesn’t represent specific intellectual skills
113
Q: What are the relationships between each section of the hierarchical model of intelligence?
A: moderately strong correlations between subtests and strong correlations withing subtests
114
Q: What is fluid intelligence?
A: the ability to deal with novel problems
115
Q: What is crystalized intelligence?
A: acquired knowledge
116
Q: When does fluid intelligence peak?
A: age 20
117
Q: When does crystalized intelligence peak?
A: age 60
118
Q: What are the conclusions from twin studies on intelligence?
A: IQ in monozygotic twins are similar when reared together or a part- proves the genetic influence on intelligence
119
Q: What is the Flynn effect?
A: scores on intelligence tests have risen approximately 3 points per decade over the last few decades
120
Q: What is the likely cause of the Flynn effect and what proves this?
A: modernization- better literacy and access to more nutrition. Height rose at a similar rate as IQ
121
Q: What are the products and processes in the cognitive unconscious?
A: we are aware of the products of cognition but not the processes
122
Q: What is the cognitive unconscious?
A: the mental activities outside of awareness that make interactions possible. We can't distinguish certain activations like memories and assumption
123
Q: What is subliminal perception and what is an example?
A: people can be influenced by visual inputs they didn't consciously perceive. N400 effect where priming happens at the neural level outside of consciousness
124
Q: What are metacognitive skills?
A: skills in monitoring and controlling one’s own mental processes
125
Q: What are workspace neurons?
A: neurons that have the job to tie information together- to integrate
126
Q: What are the two factors related to consciousness?
A: overall alertness and content of consciousness
