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Psych 2135 final > final exam key content > Flashcards

final exam key content Flashcards

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1
Q

Q: What is the “and” rule in probability and how do we calculate it?

A

A: The probability of two things where both happen. This and that. We multiply probabilities together

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2
Q

Q: What is the “or” rule in probability and how to we calculate it?

A

A: The probability of two thing where only one is possible. this or that - Add the probabilities

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3
Q

Q: What are phonemes

A

A: the smallest unit of sound in a language that can change the meaning of a word

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4
Q

Q: What are morphemes?

A

A: the smallest unit of meaning in a language. It can be a whole word or a part of a word that carries meaning

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5
Q

Q: What is syntax?

A

A: rules of how you say things- word order

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6
Q

Q: What is semantics?

A

A: meaning

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7
Q

Q: What is phonology?

A

A: sound structure of sentences

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8
Q

Q: What are the three ways phonology is distinguished?

A

A: voicing, manner of production, place of articulation

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9
Q

Q: What is voicing?

A

A: whether the vocal folds vibrate or not

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10
Q

Q: What is manner of production?

A

A: whether the air is fully stopped or merely restricted

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11
Q

Q: What is the place of articulation?

A

A: where in the mouth the air is restricted- closing lips, top teeth against bottom lip, tongue behind upper lip

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12
Q

Q: What is the difference between content morphemes and function morphemes?

A

A: content have meaning while function change the meaning of another morpheme when they are in conjunction

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13
Q

Q: What is voice onset time?

A

A: when the voicing starts in the sound

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14
Q

Q: What is categorical perception?

A

A: the change from one sound to another is abrupt and not gradual

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15
Q

Q: How does syntax affect meaning?

A

A: word order can change the meaning of a phrase

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16
Q

Q: What is sentence parsing?

A

A: the process of determining the role of each word in a sentence to get the meaning that happens while the sentence is being heard

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17
Q

Q: What are garden-path sentences?

A

A: sentences initially suggest an interpretation that is incorrect

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18
Q

Q: Why does the garden-path effect occur?

A

A: natural rhythm and phrase structure, sentence parsing

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19
Q

Q: What is Broca’s area responsible for?

A

A: speech production

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20
Q

Q: What is Wernicke’s area responsible for?

A

A: comprehension of language

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21
Q

Q: What is the difference between aphasia and agnosia in relation to language?

A

A: Aphasia: Disruptions of language processing
Agnosia: Disruption of naming

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22
Q

Q: What are some characteristics of Broca’s aphasia?

A

A: grammar problems, telegraphic speech, understand but has a hard time producing

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23
Q

Q: What are some characteristics of Wernicke’s aphasia?

A

A: comprehension problems, grammatically correct sentences with no meaning

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24
Q

Q: What is the sapir-whorf hypothesis?

A

A: our native language determines our thoughts and perceptions

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25
Q

Q: What did the study with the Dani tribe determine about colour perception?

A

A: even if the Dani tribe did not have words for the focal colours they could still recognize them- evidence against sapir-worf

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26
Q

Q: What was the conclusion from the Barbara Malt study about classification of containers?

A

A: subjects did not differ even with different languages- evidence against sapir-whorf

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27
Q

Q: What is the McGurk effect?

A

A: we use visual cues to tell the difference between similar sounds

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28
Q

Q: What are linguistic metaphors?

A

A: words that we use that do not use their exact meaning but are known to have another meaning. Example: up = happy

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29
Q

Q: How do we use inferences to understand others?

A

A: infer implicit meanings that are different from what is said explicitly- words can have different meanings in different contexts

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30
Q

Q: What is the definition of mental imagery?

A

A: processing perceptual-like info without the actual source of perceptual info

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31
Q

Q: How do images differ from perception?

A

A: Perceptual things can be reinterpreted

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32
Q

Q: What are the qualities of mental images?

A

A: They are like pictures and have similar properties

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33
Q

Q: What were the conclusions from the Segal and Fusella study about the interference effect?

A

A: when imagining visuals participants were impaired detecting visual signals and same for auditory visuals and signals

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34
Q

Q: How was Segal and Fusell’as study on the interference effect done?

A

A: Had to imagine either a sound or light then had to detect a visual or auditory signal

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35
Q

Q: What were the conclusions from the Shepard study on mental rotation?

A

A: time to respond increased with more complicated rotations needed to answer the question

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36
Q

Q: What were the conclusions of the study done about image scanning done by Kosslyn?

A

A: cms of image strongly correlates to how long it takes to imagine travelling there

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37
Q

Q: What is zooming in and what did Kosslyn find?

A

A: faster response time for larger animals when asked about characteristics of an animal- people have to zoom in on the image in their mind which takes time

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38
Q

Q: What is property verification?

A

A: when asked abour properties of something people tend to think of highly associated things and when asked just to imagine something people think of things that take up the most space in the image

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39
Q

Q: T/F images are like perception when it comes to reinterpretation. How was it proven?

A

A: False. Visual stimuli must always be interpreted while images are already interpreted and cannot b re-interpreted. Proven when people were asked to draw an image from their mind that had two interpretations. People who only saw one interpretation could not reverse the image to draw the other version (they only remember the one version of the image)

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40
Q

Q: What is Baye’s Theorem?

A

A: prescriptive model for how people should reason about probabilities as they collect relevant evidence

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41
Q

Q: Baye’s theorem is made up of what three types of probability?

A

A: Prior, conditional, posterior

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42
Q

Q: What is prior probability?

A

A: what you already know without looking at the evidence

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43
Q

Q: What is conditional probability?

A

A: if hypothesis is true then how good is the evidence (is it true- quality of evidence)

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44
Q

Q: What is posterior probability?

A

A: probability after considering the evidence

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45
Q

Q: What is the Gambler’s Fallacy?

A

A: randomness should look a certain way- does not consider independence

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46
Q

Q: What are base rates and what is base rate neglect?

A

A: basic or general frequency at which an event occurs in a population. It represents the likelihood of an event happening without considering any specific circumstances or additional information. Neglect is when people overlook these and use heuristics instead

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47
Q

Q: What is attribution substitution?

A

A: We usually don’t have base rate, or other stats about certain outcomes so we make substitutions

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48
Q

Q: What are some examples of attribution substitutions?

A

A: Availability, representativeness, affect, effort

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49
Q

Q: What is the rational model?

A

A: Assume value for all alternatives and pick the rational one

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50
Q

Q: What is another word for the rational model?

A

A: The normative model

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51
Q

Q: What is expected value?

A

A: What gives you the most in the long run. Gain minus potential loss

52
Q

Q: What is the difference between expected value and expected utility?

A

A: Expected utility includes the person’s preferences for different outcomes

53
Q

Q: What are certainty effects?

A

A: If there is certainty then we choose the lower value- an immediate gain because most people do not like uncertainty

54
Q

Q: What is framing?

A

A: the idea that the way information is presented or “framed” can influence people’s decisions and perceptions

55
Q

Q: What is loss aversion?

A

A: people tend to choose the riskier option when it is framed as a loss. A gain of 100 is not as good as a loss of 100 is bad (loss feels worse)

56
Q

Q: What is risk avoidance?

A

A: The similar to certainty effects- people will choose the less risky option over the riskier one

57
Q

Q: What is the representativeness heuristic?

A

A: we assume that each individual member of a category has the traits we associate with the category overall- we consider this over probability

58
Q

Q: T/F The Gambler’s Fallacy is an example of representativeness.

A

A: True

59
Q

Q: What is the availability heuristic?

A

A: We use the ease to which something is brought to mind as a cue to decide what is more likely

60
Q

Q: What is sunk cost and what other name does it go by?

A

A: Reluctance to give up invested time/money. The Entrapment Effect

61
Q

Q: What is Prospect Theory?

A

A: Tversky & Kahneman’s alternative to the rational model where objective probability is replaced with psychological probability- loss aversion, risk aversion

62
Q

Q: What is categorical reasoning?

A

A: putting things in categories based on characteristics and attributes

63
Q

Q: What is a universal affirmative

A

A: everything is something- All A are B (2 ways to be true)

64
Q

Q: What is a particular affirmative?

A

A: some (at least one and possibly all) things are affirmative- Some B are A (4 ways to be true)

65
Q

Q: What is a universal negative?

A

A: no overlap- no A are B (1 way to be true)

66
Q

Q: What is particular negative?

A

A: some (at least one and possibly all) A are not B (3 ways to be true)

67
Q

Q: How can belief bias lead to invalid conclusions?

A

A: We might believe something we think to be true even though there are other possible ways a statement can be true

68
Q

Q: What words are the antecedent and the consequent in an if/then statement?

A

A: if is the antecedent and then is the consequent

69
Q

Q: What is modus ponens?

A

A: Affirming the antecedent. If A happens then B will happen

70
Q

Q: What is modus tollens?

A

A: denying the consequent. The second half did not happen

71
Q

Q: What is affirming the consequent?

A

A: an invalid form that affirms the result and assumes the if is true- ignores alternatives for the result

72
Q

Q: What is denying the antecedent?

A

A: an invalid form that ignores the alternatives for the results

73
Q

Q: What is confirmation bias?

A

A: favouring things that confirm what we already believe

74
Q

Q: What does the Wason Card selection task demonstrate?

A

A: confirmation bias

75
Q

Q: Why is flipping the 4 card in the Wasson card task invalid?

A

A: it is affirming the consequent

76
Q

Q: What do you need to do to prove the Wasson card statement true?

A

A: affirm the antecedent (vowel card has even number on the other side) and deny the consequent (odd number card has a consonant on the other side)

77
Q

Q: What are the parts of a problem?

A

A: Initial state (givens), obstacles (means), goal

78
Q

Q: What is the initial state?

A

A: where you begin before solving a problem

79
Q

Q: What is the difference between a well-defined problem and an ill-defined problem?

A

A: clear/ unclear goal, givens, means, initial stat, obstacles

80
Q

Q: What are givens?

A

A: Things that you have that can hurt or help (can be implicit or explicit) you solve the problem

81
Q

Q: What are obstacles?

A

A: the gap or barrier that gets in your way

82
Q

Q: What are means?

A

A: Steps to go from initial state to goal

83
Q

Q: What is the goal state?

A

A: the end- what you want to attain

84
Q

Q: What is Problem Space Analysis?

A

A: initially defining the problem space then searching it to find the solution

85
Q

Q: What are algorithms?

A

A: following the exact steps to get to a guaranteed solution

86
Q

Q: What are heuristics?

A

A: shortcuts that rely on knowledge

87
Q

Q: What is an exhaustive search?

A

A: checking all possibilities in a problem space- best for small problem space

88
Q

Q: What is hill climbing?

A

A: taking steps closer to the goal state- but not moving away

89
Q

Q: What is Means-End Analysis?

A

A: dividing the problem into smaller problems then solving smaller problems- can use other problem solving methods for small problems but uses more cog resources

90
Q

Q: What are the hobbits and orcs and tower of hanoi examples of?

A

A: Means-end analysis

91
Q

Q: What is functional fixedness?

A

A: the tendency to be rigid in thinking about an object’s function

92
Q

Q: What does Dunker’s candle box experiment reveal?

A

A: functional fixedness- Participants were more likely to solve the candle problem if the tacks were not placed inside the box when the materials were presented

93
Q

Q: What is convergent thinking?

A

A: an ability to spot ways in which seemingly distinct ideas might be interconnected- from out to in

94
Q

Q: How is convergent thinking tested?

A

A: remote associates test- finding one word that relates to three other words

95
Q

Q: What is divergent thinking?

A

A: an ability to move one’s thoughts in novel, unanticipated directions - from in to out

96
Q

Q: How is divergent thinking tested?

A

A: asking participants to think of as many uses for an object as they can

97
Q

Q: What are Wallas’ stages in order?

A

A: Preparation, Incubation, Illumination, Verification

98
Q

Q: What is the preparation stage?

A

A: gathering info you need to do the task

99
Q

Q: What is incubation and what could be the process involved?

A

A: coming up with the solution after we take a break. Spreading activation

100
Q

Q: What is illumination?

A

A: the aha moment when you feel like you get closer to the solution

101
Q

Q: What are insight problems?

A

A: Problems that require a shift in perspective to solve- Comes with a moment of illumination before it is actually solved

102
Q

Q: What is the caveat of the Ericcson 10 000 hours rule?

A

A: must be deliberate practise- one of many predictors and not a golden rule

103
Q

Q: What did Ericcson find in his study involving violin experts?

A

A: highest level musicians practised for 20 hours or more per week

104
Q

Q: What is the conclusion from the study involving chess experts and memory?

A

A: The better the chess player (player rating), the better they can recreate the configuration when it is wiped away after only looking at the board for 10 seconds- the effect is not seen when the positions are random

105
Q

Q: What was the conclusion from the physics expert study?

A

A: Expert classifies problems with deeper features (physics principles) while novice classify based on surface features- how they look compared to how they are solved

106
Q

Q: What does IQ stand for and how was it tested originally?

A

A: stands for intelligence quotient and was the ratio between mental age and chronological age

107
Q

Q: What is Raven’s Progressive Matrices and how is it beneficial?

A

A: task is to identify the shape the completes the pattern. It is beneficial because it can be nonverbal

108
Q

Q: What is reliability?

A

A: the consistency of the measure- test and retest- people roughly have the same correlation across the lifespan

109
Q

Q: What is validity?

A

A: whether a test measures what it is intended to measure

110
Q

Q: What is predictive validity?

A

A: a score on a test should predict the score of another similar test- ex IQ and GPA

111
Q

Q: What is general intelligence (g)?

A

A: a capacity that provides an advantage on virtually any mental task

112
Q

Q: What are the benefits of looking at specialized intelligence?

A

A: predict specific performance, single number doesn’t represent specific intellectual skills

113
Q

Q: What are the relationships between each section of the hierarchical model of intelligence?

A

A: moderately strong correlations between subtests and strong correlations withing subtests

114
Q

Q: What is fluid intelligence?

A

A: the ability to deal with novel problems

115
Q

Q: What is crystalized intelligence?

A

A: acquired knowledge

116
Q

Q: When does fluid intelligence peak?

A

A: age 20

117
Q

Q: When does crystalized intelligence peak?

A

A: age 60

118
Q

Q: What are the conclusions from twin studies on intelligence?

A

A: IQ in monozygotic twins are similar when reared together or a part- proves the genetic influence on intelligence

119
Q

Q: What is the Flynn effect?

A

A: scores on intelligence tests have risen approximately 3 points per decade over the last few decades

120
Q

Q: What is the likely cause of the Flynn effect and what proves this?

A

A: modernization- better literacy and access to more nutrition. Height rose at a similar rate as IQ

121
Q

Q: What are the products and processes in the cognitive unconscious?

A

A: we are aware of the products of cognition but not the processes

122
Q

Q: What is the cognitive unconscious?

A

A: the mental activities outside of awareness that make interactions possible. We can’t distinguish certain activations like memories and assumption

123
Q

Q: What is subliminal perception and what is an example?

A

A: people can be influenced by visual inputs they didn’t consciously perceive. N400 effect where priming happens at the neural level outside of consciousness

124
Q

Q: What are metacognitive skills?

A

A: skills in monitoring and controlling one’s own mental processes

125
Q

Q: What are workspace neurons?

A

A: neurons that have the job to tie information together- to integrate

126
Q

Q: What are the two factors related to consciousness?

A

A: overall alertness and content of consciousness

Psych 2135 final (1 decks)

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