Final Exam Cumulative Flashcards
1
Q
What are the 6 major classes of nutrients?
A
Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins, Vitamins, Minerals and Water
2
Q
What are the 3 main functions for nutrients?
A
- Provide energy for metabolism
- Build and Repair Body Tissues
- Help Regulate body process
3
Q
In what units is energy measured in?
A
Calories
4
Q
How are food calories measured?
A
By placing it is a calorimeter and finding the amount of heat required to raise one gram of water by one degree celsius
5
Q
What is a macronutrient?
A
Nutrients that we consume in large amounts or nutrients that give us Calories
6
Q
What is a micronutrient?
A
This is specific to vitamins and minerals (maybe phyto and zoo nutrients)
7
Q
What classfications of nutrients are part of macronutrients?
A
fats, alcohol, proteins and carbohydrates
8
Q
What is an essential nutrient?
A
A nutrient that we should get from our diet because our body cannot make it (either at all or enough of it)
9
Q
What is a non-essential nutrient?
A
These nutrients can be made by our body. if we do consume them, the amount that our bodies need to make decreases
10
Q
What are the diesases most related to our diet? (7)
A
Heart disease, stroke, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, cancers, liver disease
11
Q
What are the four main principles for avoiding malnutrition?
A
- Variety: eating a mix of fruits and vegetables.
- Balance
- Moderation: Dont overeat
- Nutrient Density: eat nutrient dense food
12
Q
Who creates the Dietary guidelines for Americans?
A
The department of Human Health Services and the USDA
13
Q
According to the dietary guidelines, what foods should be limited?
A
Saturated fats, trans fats, added sugars, and sodium
14
Q
How much physical activity do adults need?
A
150 minutes
15
Q
How much physical activity do youth need?
A
60 minutes
16
Q
What is the number one reason for food selection?
A
Flavor
17
Q
What document helps us determine which nutrients are good for us?
A
The Dietary Reference Intake (DRI)
18
Q
What is the RDA?
A
Recommended Dietary Allowance is the estimated amount of a nutrient per day considered necessary for the maintenance of good health (practically all healthy individuals)
19
Q
What is AI?
A
Adequate Intake is established when evidence is insufficient to develop an RDA and is set at a level assumed to ensure nutritional adequacy.
20
Q
What is the EAR?
A
Estimated Average Requirement is the intake level for a nutrient at which the needs of 50 percent of the population will be met.
21
Q
What is UL?
A
The Upper Intake level is the value established for some nutrients where we know the value should not exceed a certain limit
22
Q
What is the EER?
A
Estimated Energy Requirement is the average energy intake that is predicted to keep energy balance in healthy, normal weight individuals of based on age, gender, weight, height,
23
Q
What is the AMDR?
A
Acceptable Macro nutrient Distribution Ranges is a value that establishes calories from carbohydrates, fats and proteins
24
Q
How much energy do we obtain from carbohydrate?
A
4 kcal/g
25
How much energy do we obtain from fats?
9 kcal/g
26
How much energy do we obtain from proteins?
4 kcal/g
27
How much energy do we obtain from alcohol?
7 kcal/g
28
What are GMOs?
Genetically modified organisms are foods whose genetic material (DNA) has been modified in a way that does not naturally occur
29
What is an example of plant breeding?
Seen with corn, it cannot survive without human intervention
30
A good plasmic for DNA cloning has what 3 characterisitics?
- Replication origin
- marker that permits selection
- region where DNA fragments can be inserted
31
What is the risk with GMOs?
There is a risk of potential allergens unintentionally being transferred from one species to another.
32
t/f the USDA and FDA have found lots of adverse health effects associated with GMO's
FALSE
33
What percent of calories must be from carbohydrates?
45-65%
34
What percent of Calories must be from fats?
20-35%
35
What percent of Calories must be from protein?
10-35%
36
What MUST a nutrition facts panel include?
List of Ingredients
Serving Size
Servings per container
Amount per serving
37
Why dont alcoholic beverage have labels?
Because they are not regulated by the FDA, they are part of the TTB (alcohol and Tobacco Tax and trade Bureau)
38
What does Calories free mean?
>5 kcal
39
What does fat free mean?
> 0.5g of fat/ serving
40
Who regulates pesticides?
EPA
41
How are pesticides approved?
Based on a risk/benefit assessment. If it is approved, a tolerance level is set
42
How do they account for the differences in tolerance level between rats and humans?
They reduce the Tolerance Level by a factor of 10 to be sure. For children foods, it is reduced another factor of 10
43
What is meant by 100% organic?
ALL ingredients are organic
44
What is meant by "organic"
A minimum of 95% of ingredients are organic
45
What is meant by "made with organic ingredients?
70-94% of the product is organic
46
Under which conditions does food security exist?
When all people at all times are able to obtain sufficient amounts of nutritionist food for an active and healthy lifestyle.
47
What factors can contribute to food insecurity?
Poverty, war, natural disasters, etc
48
Which ethnic groups are at a higher risk for food insecurity?
Latinos and Blacks
49
What is a food desert?
Urban neighborhoods that have limited access to healthy and fresh food.
50
What is the largest domestic hunger and safety network?
SNAP
51
What is WIC
WIC provides funds for pregnant women, breastfeeding and mothers of infants.
52
What is urbanization?
A shift in a country's population from primarily rural to urban
53
The use of _____ for purposes other than feeding the people can be converted to ________________
The use of land for purposes other than feeding the people can be converted to food shortages
54
What is nutrition transition?
A shift from under nutrition to over nutrition
55
What is quackery?
A huge business where people sell millions of dollars each year based on false information.
56
What are some well known seals and certifications (for products being sold)?
USP
Consumerlabs.com
NSF
Informed Choice
57
What are the 3 main reasons for processing foods?
1. Prevent Spoilage
2. Some food is enriched or fortified
3. Some nutrients may be lost
58
What is enrichment?
This is when we add nutrients back into certain foods
59
What is fortification?
When we add nutrients back to the food but it is greater than what was naturally present
60
What are the 2 vitamins that are seriously depleted?
Vitamin B1 and Vitamin C
61
What is the main issue of consuming processed foods?
The excessive use of highly refined products (sugar, oils, salt)
62
What are the main reasons for adding additives in the foods we eat?
Adding flavor, enhancing color, improve texture and preserve the food
63
What is GRAS?
Generall recognized as safe
64
How are food additives approved?
They must be GRAS and FDA approved
65
What are the 2 main functions of the digestive system?
Digestion and Absorption
66
What is digestion?
The process where larger nutrients are broken down into smaller nutrients
67
What is absorption?
When the nutrients move through intestinal tract to eventually reach the circulation.
68
What organs does the Upper GI tract consist of?
Oral cavity, esophagus, and stomach
69
What is the gastroesopageal sphincter? Where is it at?
This sphincter is at the end of the esophagus and it prevents food from coming back into the esophagus by closing up as soon as contents pass into the stomach
70
What happens if regurgitation occurs and some food comes back up the esophagus after it was in the stomach?
It can cause a burning sensation also known as heartburn
71
What is the medical condition for when heartburn is a chronic condition?
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
72
What is the pyloric sphincter? Where is it located?
It is a muscle between the end of the stomach and beginning of the small intestine. It regulates how rapidly food moves from stomach into the small intestine.
73
What is the pyloric sphincter controlled by?
neural and hormonal cues
74
What organs does the lower GI tract consist of
Small intestine, large intestine and rectum
75
What are the 3 sections of the small intestine?
1. Duodenum (busiest)
2. Jejunum
3. Ileum
76
What is the function of the duodenum?
Receive food that was just processed in the stomach
77
What is the function of the jejunum?
The most absorption of nutrients occurs
78
What is the function of the ileum?
Some important absorption occurs
79
What is the average length of the small intestine?
15-20 feet
80
What are plica circulares?
Folds of the small intestine that help slow movement of food
81
What is the difference between villi and microvilli?
Villi are hair-like appendages that cover plica circulares. Microvilli are on villi
82
What 3 parts of the intestinal walls increase surface area of the small intestine?
Plica circulares, villi and microvilli
83
Gut cells are also known as ??
Enterocytes
84
Where are enterocytes found? What do they form?
They are found covering the surface of villi and have microvilli attached to it. Together, they form the brushed border
85
What are the parts of the large intestine?
```
Cecum
Ascending Colon
Transverse Colon
Descending Colon
Sigmoid
```
86
What is the cecum?
This is where the small intestine begins to enter into the large intestine
87
What sphincture is found at the cecum?
Ileocecal sphincture
88
What is the ascending colon?
Part of the intestine that goes uo the gut
89
What is the transverse colon?
Bridge between ascending and descending colon
90
What is the descending colon?
Part of the intestine that goes down the gut
91
What is the sigmoid colon?
The short curving of the colon that leads to rectum
92
Organs that are not part of the GI tract but have important functions for digestion and absorption are called?
Accessory organs
93
What are the 3 main accessory organs?
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas
94
How does the liver help with digestion and absorption?
It uses cholesterol to make bile acids that are sent to the gallbladder for storage
95
How does the gall bladder help with digestion and absorption?
It contracts and releases secretions into the duodenum
96
How does the pancreas help with digestion and absorption?
The pancreas secretes enzymes used for digestion
97
What are the main functions of the stomach? (3)
Mixing, secretion of gastric juices, and production of gut hormones
98
How does the mixing process occur in the stomach??
delete
99
What is chyme?
the acidic fluid which passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food.
100
What is the main secretion from the stomach?
HCl
101
How does HCl come into play in the stomach?
It keeps us safe because it kills microorganisms and begins the process of protein digestion (does not raise pH)
102
What is the first step of protein digestion?
Protein denaturation (this occurs with the help of HCl)
103
HCl activates which enzyme in the stomach?
The enzyme called pepsin which helps break down long strands of protein into shorter strands of amino acids
104
Which stomach secretion is responsible for absorbing vitamin B12?
Intrinsic factor
105
t/f most of the digestion of food is completed in the stomach
false
106
the rate at which the food leaves the stomach is called....
The gastric emptying rate
107
What is the gastric emptying rate influenced by? (3)
Food volume ( how much there is)
Consistency (whether it is solid or liquid)
Composition of chyme (whether it is fatty food, carbohydrates or more protein based)
108
What is the main role of the small intestine
To digest foods
109
What are the 2 main secretions of the pancreas? Where are they released
Bicarbonate and enzymes, released at duodenum
110
What is the purpose of bicarbonate?
To increase the pH of stomach contents, specifically the chyme.
111
What secretions are released by the gallbladder? where are they released?
Bile acids, released at duodenum
112
Why are bile acids important?
They allow fat digestion and absorption by allowing fat and water to mix (through hydrolyses). Once fat is broken down, the molecules are emulsified.
113
What are the 3 main functions of the large intestine?
water absorption, electrolyte absorption, and bacterial action
114
What are prebiotics
food for the friendly/good intestinal bacteria
115
Where do prebiotics come from?
They are carbohydrates that escape digestion and reach the large intestine
116
What are probiotics?
The good bacteria that we eat and can survive the harsh environment of the stomach to reach and grow in our large intestine
117
What substance (from the digestion of food) has proven to help probiotics thrive?
Glucose
118
What is the "protective" shield that probiotics have to survive the stomach?
Halo, made from milk and food
119
What are helicobacter pylori?
They are bacteria (found in most people) that live in our digestive tract and can be pathogenic by producing urease and toxins
120
What diseases does helicobacter pylori produce?
Ulcers and cancers
121
How can we treat helicobacter pylori?
They are resistant to anitbiotics, so theonly thing that can help us fight them is probiotic bacteria through the use of bacteria sins
122
What disorder can probiotics be used to fight against?
Irritable Bowel Syndrome
123
What foods can we eat to have more probiotics?
Eat more fermented foods along with prebiotics to support them
124
What is the transit time?
The amount of time that it takes for food to go through the GI tract
125
How long is transit time for the average person?
24-72 hours
126
What factors affect transit time?
Composition of diet, illness, medications, activity, stress
127
What are the 3 major mechanisms of absorption?
Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport
128
What is diffusion? is energy required?
When a molecule moves from an area of high concentration to low concentration (no energy required)
129
What is facilitated diffusion?
When a molecule moves from an area of high concentration to low concentration with the help of a membrane protein
130
What is active transport?
The use of energy to move molecules against a concentration gradient
131
What is gluten?
It is a storage protein for wheat, barley, and rye, sometimes found in oats.
132
Which diseases do not allow gluten consumption?
those with celiac disease and with gluten sensitivity
133
What is celiac disease?
A chronic immune disease that affects the small intestine when gluten is ingested
134
How is celiac disease contracted?
The patient must already be genetically predisposed
135
What class of nutrients are energy-yielding nutrients?
Macro nutrients
136
What is a metabolic pathway?
A series of interrelated chemical reactions that either break down a molecule or produce a molecule
137
What is substrate?
The molecule that enters the reaction
138
What are the 2 types of metabolic pathways?
Catabolic and Anabolic
139
What is a catabolic pathway?
where carbohydrates, proteins, and triglycerides are broken down to form glucose, aa, fatty acids, and glycerol. (energy released)
140
What is an anabolic pathway?
This is when glucose, aa, fatty acids, and glycerol create carbohydrates, proteins and triglycerides. (energy is required)
141
What is an enzyme?
A protein molecule that can help catalyze chemical reactions
142
What is the main example of a high energy compound?
ATP
143
What is the purpose of the gallbladder?
To store and release the biles needed for lipid digestion
144
What is the purpose of the small intestine?
It is the major site for enzyme digestion and nutrient absorption
145
What is the purpose of the liver?
to make bile acids and send to gallbladder
146
What are the roles of HCl in the stomach? (4)
- part of gastric juices
- dissolve food particles
- destroy bacteria
- provide acidic environment `
147
What is gastric emptying?
The time it takes for food to leave the stomach and enter the small intestine
148
Which procedure is performed to examine the esophagus for damage?
Endoscopy
149
What passes through duodenum?
Chyme, bile and pancreatic juices
150
What is the main role of the lymphatic system?
To carry fat-soluble nutrients (lipids) to the cardiovascular system
151
What are the major functions of the large intestine? (3)
- absorption of fluids/electrolytes
- bacterial action
- storage/ elimination of solid waste
152
What are the energy yielding nutrients?
glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids
153
What are amphibolic pathways?
Pathways that can be used fir both catabolic and anabolic pathways
154
What are the 3 main parts that make up ATP?
Ribose, Adenine and 3 Phosphate groups
155
How is energy released in ATP?
It is released when a phosphate bond is broken off. ATP then converts to ADP
156
What two ways can ATP be synthesized?
Substrate and Oxidative phosphorylation
157
What is substrate phosphorylation (glycolysis)?
n
158
What is oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain)?
n
159
Where does the electron transport chain occur?
Mitochondria
160
How does the e. transport chain work?
NADH + H+ and/or FADH2 pass thorugh enzymes that remove electrons and hydrogens. Then, some chemical reactionswill occur and there will be an accumulation of H+ ions that will give ADP a phosphate and produce ATP
161
What is glycogenolysis?
The first step in carbohydrate catabolism and it converts glycogen into glucose
162
What is glycolysis?
The specific pathway for glucose (6 carbond) to be converted into pyruvate (2 of these 3 carbon molecules)
163
What happens with pyruvate after glycolysis if oxygen is present?
Pyruvate is converted into acetyl-coA. Ready for citric cycle
164
What happens with pyruvate after glycolysis if oxygen is not present?
It will be converted into lactate (fermentation process)
165
What happens during citric cycle?
Now that we have Acetyl-Co A from pyruvate, and it produces CO2 and NADH, H+, and FADH2 which will be used for electron transport which will produce the majority of ATP
166
What is GTP?
This is another energy molecule (like ATP)
167
What routes can we take when carbohydrate is broken down for energy?
We can either go through glycogenolysis or glycolysis.
| Either begin with glycogen or with a free glucose molecule
168
What is the product of pyruvate break down?
A 2 fatty carbon acetate (activated by coenzyme A)
169
What are the different anabolic pathways? (5)
Gluconeogenesis, glycogenesis, lipogenesis, ketogenesis, protein synthesis
170
What is gluconeogenesis?
This is when we take noncarbohydrate molecules and transform them into glucose
This includes AA, fat or pyruvate
171
Where does gluconeogenesis mainly occur?
In the tissues of the liver and kidneys
172
What is lipogenesis?
This is the process of making lipids that consist of triglycerides
173
What can cause a fatty liver?
This occurs when we eat too much carbohydrates/proteins which results in more triglycerides, more lipids and can cause our fat cells from liver to increase
174
What is ketogenesis?
The production of ketones due to accumulation of acetyl coA
175
What is protein synthesis?
The process of using amino acids to make protein molecule.
176
What are the 3 most common carbohydrates in our diet?
Glucose, Galactose and Fructose
177
Where do carbohydrates come from?
They come from the process of photosynthesis. Plants can obtain co2 from air, water and sunlight.
178
What are simple sugars?
Mono or disaccharides
179
What are the 3 major monosaccharides
Glucose, fructose and galactose
180
What are disaccharides?
A combination of glucose, fructose, and galactose linked together
181
What are the 3 major disaccharides?
Sucrose, Maltose, and Lactose
182
What are complex carbohydrates?
This is also known as polysaccharides and it is when there are 2 or more monosaccharides linked together
183
What is the main type of polysaccharide in our diet?
Starch (it is stored as energy in plants)
184
What complex carbohydrate is common in mammals?
Glycogen
185
What are soluble fibers?
Fibers that dissolve in water. These are mostly found in fruits, most grains and beans
186
What are insoluble fibers?
Fibers that cannot dissolve in water. These are mainly found in wheat and other plant foods
187
What are the main reasons grains are processed?
To prolong shelf life or improve the availability.
188
What is the upper limit for sugars?
10% of calories
189
Glucose and galactose are absorbed by which method?
Active Transport (ATP required)
190
How is fructose absorbed?
Facilitated diffusion
191
What happens once a carbohydrate is absorbed?
It goes to circulation around the GI tract (hepatic portal circulation) and eventually the liver so that it can either metabolize or leave
192
What is considered the most important physiological carbohydrate?
Glucose
193
What are triglycerides composed of?
a glycerol backbone (a 3-carbon molecule) and 3 fatty acids.
194
More than 95% of the lipids we eat are _______
Triglycerides
195
What is a short chain fatty acid?
less than 6 carbons
196
What is a medium chain fatty acid?
6-10 carbons
197
What is a long chain fatty acid?
More than 12 carbons
198
Most our fatty acids are ___ chain fatty acids
Long
199
How does solubility relate to length of chain?
The shorter the fatty acid, the more water soluble it will be. The longer it is, the more fat soluble it will be
200
What does it mean to be saturated?
the carbons in the middle will each be bonded to as many hydrogens as possible
201
What is the RDA for carbohydrates?
130 grams/ day
202
Disaccharides must be broken into _____ before they are absorbed
their respective monosaccharide
203
What happens in our body once carbohydrate is absorbed?
Our blood sugar concentration goes up and it also increase the release and production of insulin
204
What is the function of insulin?
To allow glucose to go from the circulation into the cells so that there is not high amounts of glucose in the circulation.
205
What is it called if insulin functions at a high rate? What will occur to our glucose levels?
It can be transient hypoglycemia which will cause our glucose levels to be below normal.
206
What is the glycemic index?
a system that ranks foods on a scale from 1 to 100 based on their effect on blood-sugar levels.
207
What does it mean to be lactose intolerant?
When an individual has low levels of lactase production (the enzyme that breaks down lactose.
208
What happens if we cannot absorb lactose and glucose?
They will go through the GI tract and will pull fluid into the large intestine which can cause Lactose intolerant symptoms
209
Are more groups susceptible to lactose intolerance?
Yes
210
What is type 1 diabetes?
Insulin dependent because the individual is not producing enough in the pancreas.
211
What is type 2 diabetes?
It is associated with older overweight individuals and it is when we have so much insulin that does not function properly and elevates glucose concentration
212
What are some common diabetes complications?
blindness, kidney disease, heart disease, nerve damage, increased infections, amputations of limbs
213
What are some common diabetes symptoms?
excessive thirst, polyuria, blurred vision, unexpected weight loss,
214
When is diabetes diagnosed?
Once our blood glucose is greater than 200mg./deciliter at any time of the day
215
When is metabolic syndrome present? (3/5 criteria)
abdominal obesity, fasting triglycerides, HDL cholesterol, high blood pressure, or fasting glucose
216
How can we prevent diabetes?
Reducing weight, prevent obesity
217
How can we reduce overeating?
choose a diet high in vegetables, fruits, poultry, fish, and whole grains. They also provide enough anti-inflammatory symptoms to help reduce metabolic syndrome chances.
218
What is the major key if one already has metabolic syndrome/diabetes?
keep glucose in close regulation (not just diet, also exercise and medications)
219
What is the medication given to those with type 1 diabetes?
insulin
220
What is the medication for those with type 2 diabetes>
we must promote insulin sensitivity
221
What should be the dietary intake of someone with diabetes?
Rich in fiber, low in saturated fat
222
When do cavities form?
When the bacteria in our mouth use carbohydrates as energy source and produce acids that erode the enamel of the tooth
223
What are the main benefits of fiber?
Reduce rates of obesity, heart disease, diabetes, gut health, and maybe even colon cancer
224
t/f carbohydrates are fattening and we must reduce/restrict them
False, carbohydrates are less energy dense. Fats are associated with obesity
225
When is fructose consumption bad for us?
When we consume at high levels
226
When is it easier to consume too much high fructose corn syrup?
When we consume sweet soft drinks
227
What is the problem of eating too much sugar alcohol?
It can get into the colon and produce water and cause diarrhea
228
What is one benefit of sugar alcohol?
They are not metabolized in the oral cavity (less cavities)
229
t/f moderate intake of approved sweeteners pose no health risks and are not cariogenic so can be used as sugar replacers
true
230
What does it mean for a fatty acid to be monounsaturated?
Carbons will be bonded to almost all hydrogen. It is disrupted by one double bond
231
What does it mean for a fatty acid to be polyunsaturated?
2 or more double bonds between the carbons
232
What can we assume about fatty acids that are liquids in room temperature (in terms of saturation)?
They are typically rick in polyunsaturated fats
233
What can we assume about fatty acid foods that are solid in room temperature (in terms of saturation)?
Typically, they are rich in saturated fatty acids
234
What are some examples of saturated fats?
animal fats, plant fats, tropical oils (coconut oil)
235
What are the 2 types of double bonds?
Cis and Trans
236
What are cis double bonds?
A bond that causes a bend and the hydrogens are on the same side of the double bond.
237
Cis double bonds are associated with _____________ fatty acids which are __________ at room temperature
Cis double bonds are associated with unsaturated fatty acids which are liquids at room temperature
238
What are trans double bonds?
A double bond where hydrogens are across from each other and the structure is more tightly held
239
What are Omega 3 fatty acids?
This is when the first double bond of the fatty acids is 3 carbons from omega end
240
What is the omega end?
The side of the fatty acid that has carbons linked to hydrogens
241
What are omega 6 fatty acids?
When the first double bond is 6 carbons from omega end
242
What are omega 9 fatty acids?
When the first double bond is 9 carbons away from omega end
243
What are some of the sources of omega 3 fatty acids?
Salmon, herring, mackerel, canola oil, eggs, walnuts, sardines
244
What are the 2 essential fatty acids?
Linolenic acid and alpha-linolenic acid
245
What is an example of a non-essential fatty acid?
Gamma-linoleic acid
246
What is the condition from not eating enough essential fatty acids?
Essential fatty acid deficiency
247
What are the major symptoms from essential fatty acid deficiency?
reproductive failure, skin abnormalities, kidney/liver disease, growth/vision impairments
248
What is glycerol (in terms of triglyceride)?
the backbone that holds fatty acids together
249
Is glycerol fat or water soluble?
Water
250
Which organ is responsible for cholesterol production?
liver
251
What is the substance most similar to cholesterol found in plants?
Sterols
252
Why do we need cholesterol?
We use it for normal metabolism, normal cell membrane function, production of bile acids, sex hormones
253
What is a phospholipid?
It is very similar to a triglyceride but one of the fatty acids is replace with phosphate
254
What allows fat to be emulsified?
Bile Acids
255
What would happen if fats were not emulsified?
The fat would not be able to interact with the enzymes in the gut
