Final Exam Flashcards
Give an example of a personality feature at each level; that is, where everyone is the same, where some people differ, and where everyone differs
First level: commonalities across all people (basic language, emotions, needs - competence, autonomy, relatedness)
Second level: individual differences (trait differences, demographic differences, and other individual differences (values, interests, etc)
Third level: individual characteristics/quirks such as your facial expressions, the way you mispronounce words, the way your eye twitches when you’re focused, etc.
Name the big 5 traits. Can you also list one facet of each trait?
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Openness
Extraversion
(CANOE)
Describe 3 kinds of personality units that are not traits (aka middle level units)
Needs - produces motivation and behaviour towards their satisfaction
Goals - the things people want to accomplish
Self-concept - the understanding/beliefs about ones own characteristics
Others: goals, interests, values, character strengths, attitudes, attachment styles, abilities
Describe two ways character strengths are like traits and one way they are different
Strengths are similar to traits because:
- they are relatively stable over the course of months
- they are intended as a broad map of individual differences
- they are widely relevant across cultures
Strengths are different because:
- they are not empirically decided
- they are valued characteristics that are more prone to development through education, effort, etc.
Name the six virtues, and one related strength for each. How do they relate to strengths?
Wisdom and knowledge - creativity
Courage - Bravery
Humanity - Kindness
Justice - Fairness
Temperance - Modesty
Transcendence - Hope
The virtues are are hierarchical system that are categorical and have several strengths under each
Wayne caressed hilary’s jacket tonight too
What is ‘big’ about the big 5 traits?
They are broad. They are umbrella terms for smaller facets
Two people can score similarly on traits and be quite different (ex. people with high need for achievement may have completely different motivations)
Contrast jingle and jangle fallacy
Jingle fallacy is when the same word is used to describe two different things (i.e., different forms of optimism are grouped together)
Jangle fallacy is when different words are used to describe the same thing (i.e., conscientiousness and grit)
How are strengths useful, given their overlap with traits?
Strengths are more specific and offer a closer look on specific areas within traits
They also cover things that don’t ‘fit’ into the Big 5 such as spirtuality
Describe the three levels of personality
The first level focuses on commonalities across all people (basic language, emotions, etc.)
The middle level focuses on differences between people, such as trait differences, demographic differences, and other individual differences
The third level are the quirks or unique individual characteristics such as the way you smile when you’re focused, etc.
Is personality genetic?
Yes, but only to an extent. People are unique in their combinations of gene variants (except MZ twins) however, personality is the result of genes interacting with the environment
Our genes do not change and are relatively stable but they may be expressed or blocked in response to experience
What does it mean when traits are normally distributed?
It means that most people score in the middle of the trait meaning they express both dimensions of the trait
It is better to think of traits as a spectrum rather then black and white categories
Which two Big 5 traits are the best predictors of SWB?
Conscientiousness and emotional stability
What are two reasons why it can be hard to decide whether you are an introvert or an extravert?
- Traits are typically normally distributed meaning people express both dimensions of traits
- People don’t always act in accordance with their disposition and it is difficult to think about ones average tendencies over time
T/F When provided with a list of homophones and asked to spell them extraverted individuals are more likely to write the positive homophone (peace vs. piece)
True
What is the VIA?
Values in action - a list of 24 strengths
This was the attempt to make a ‘manual of sanities’. However, it is criticized for the jangle fallacy and outpacing empirical support
How is the ‘I’ part of the self different from the ‘me’ part of the self, and how are they linked?
The ‘I’ is the doer, the self-aware knower, decider
The ‘me’ is the self-concept which is subjective and includes the mental representation of who you are (knowledge, beliefs, personality, etc.)
How does self-determination theory describe authentic behaviours?
Self-determination argues that if we are accomplishing our needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness) then we are behaving authentically
Note one similarity and one difference in the correlates of dispositional authenticity and state authenticity
Dispositional authenticity assess characteristics that reflect or seem conductive to authentic experiences; assess perceptional averages over time
State authenticity is the perception/feeling that one is currently behaving in accordance with the true self; differs from moment to moment
Dispositional authenticity finds a negative correlation between authenticity and accepting influence from others, whereas state authenticity finds that authenticity positively correlates with influence from others
*It feels different to accept influence in the moment vs over a lifetime (lack of control)
Peoples dispositional traits have been found not to matter - people feel more authentic engaging in positive traits regardless of disposition
Give one good reason for, and one good reason against, efforts aimed at increasing self-esteem
SE is positively correlated with SWB, persistence, occupational status, income, health and negatively correlated with depression, aggression and criminality
However, interventions seem to backfire - Striving for SE can make people act defensively (putting people down to feel better, ignoring constructive feedback to feel better), increase narcissism, or create unstable SE
Describe the key differences between the independent aspect and the interdependent aspect of the self-concept
Independence is about seeing the self as unique and pursing personal goals autonomously (western societies), behaviour is more consistent across situations
Interdependence is about social bonds, fitting into groups and considering others wishes/norms before acting (eastern societies), modifying their behaviour depending on the context/environment
Independence is associated with a more consistent send of self which leads to more happiness and higher SE
T/F People tend to be happier when their traits fits the social norms of their culture
True
List the 10 criteria to be considered a ‘strength’
- contributes to fulfillment
- Strengths valued themselves
- Using it does not diminish others
- No obvious positive opposite
- Trait-like (stable, consistent)
- Distinctive from other strengths
- Has paragons - cardinal traits
- Has prodigies- some people just have it
- Selective absences
- Cultivated by institutions and rituals
How are character strengths measured?
Self-reports
Structured interview
Content analysis
What can cause an increase in character strengths?
A crisis - coping with crisis has been found to increase strengths
Strength scores typically increase with age
How is the essentialism view of true self different from how self-determination theory views authenticity?
Self-determination theory argues that we are being authentic when we are fulfilling our needs.
Whereas essentialism view sees the true self as something that is hidden and in need of discovery. It takes work and effort to be actualized
What is the relationship between reports of trait authenticity and well-being?
High trait authenticity is associated with high well-being and PWB
How are traits and values different when considering momentary reports of authenticity?
When you behave against your values you report less authenticity.
However, when you behave in positive traits (even when they are against your disposition) you feel more authentic.
Ex. People feel more authentic when they are are acting extraverted even if they are introverted
What are the main sources of self-efficacy?
Personal success experience, vicarious experience, persuasion, physiological traits
What are some of the desirable things that correlate with self-esteem?
Happiness, academic success, and persistence after failure
What are the three components of self-compassion?
Treats self with kindness, common humanity, mindfulness to negative aspects of self
How is self-compassion different from self-esteem
Self-esteem is an evaluation of the self and is good when things are going well but not so good when things are going bad
Self-compassion is less an evaluation and more how you process things and is good when people are going through rough times
Define the self-reference effect
A persons ability to remember things better when they are associated with the self-concept
It doesn’t have to be true; simply considering things in relation to the self improves memory
Name the 3 components in self-concept
Self-efficacy - the belief that one can successful enact behaviours that will lead to desirable outcomes (judgement about abilities)
Self-esteem - subjective evaluation of the self
Self-compassion - kindness towards self, awareness of common humanity, mindfulness approach to negative aspects of self
What are the 4 sources of self-efficacy?
Personal experience, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states/moods
T/F: Self-compassion offers a better goal for intervention than self-esteem
True - Self-compassion has been found to be increased with workshops whereas SE interventions backfire and increase defensive behaviours
T/F If you have high self-efficacy you are more likely to succeed
True - People with high self-efficacy make more choices to bring about success, put in more effort, and have more persistence
T/F: Having high self-compassion is negatively correlated with goal achievement/success
False. Having self-compassion doesn’t mean you try less or are not as driven it just means you are not so hard on yourself while doing it
What two things are necessary for something to be creative?
Usefulness and unique
Describe two ways that creativity is measured one as a process and one as a product
Processes can be measured by using an alternative use task or a relative association task (4 pics 1 word)
Products can be measured by counting, expert or subjective ratings, and self-report of accomplishments
Which big 5 traits is most associated with creativity and wisdom?
Openness
People high in openness are prone to divergent thinking and reduced latent inhibition
Name the characteristics of wise reasoning
Taking multiple perspectives, having prosocial motivations, understanding uncertainty, knowing pragmatics of life
Describe the link between wisdom and age
There is not much of a correlation but wisdom doesn’t seem to fall off like other memory processes
Maybe we don’t see a positive link because of cognitive decline in late life
What does it mean to say that intelligence is hierarchical?
Intelligence is a general term that is composed of many sub-components (memory, verbal, spatial, etc.)
T/F: Intelligence is less important to accomplishment than is personality
False - accomplishment depends on intelligence, interests, and mastery/drive
A fit between your abilities, interests, and drive increases accomplishments
Explain how education is important, even while IQ is highly heritable
IQ is heritable but it is not fixed - circumstances still matter.
Flynn effect: IQ scores have rose by 30 points in the last 100 years
Education effect: education changes (more school) are associated with higher IQs
What is impact bias and list two reasons for it
Impact bias is the tendency to over-estimate intensity or duration of emotional reactions
Immune neglect - underestimate our ability to cope with emotions (hedonic treadmill)
Focusing illusions - Unable to see the ‘big picture’
Describe the 4 Ps in creativity research
Process - cogntiive ability
Products - results
Personality - some people are more creative than others
Press - environment
Name two individual differences that predict both creativity and wisdom
Openness and intelligence
What does reduced latent inhibition promote?
Creativity
Latent inhibition refers to our brains ability to inhibit irrelevant and peripheral information - creative people do this less
List some environmental impacts that can increase creativity
- Multicultural experiences
- norm violation
- positive moods
- autonomous workplaces
How is wisdom measured?
Self reports and coding open response scenarios (Berlin wisdom paradigm)
Which cultures are more wise?
Interdependent/collectivists
What are the best study techniques?
Practice tests and distributed practice
Moderate techniques: interleaved studying, elaborative interrogation, and self-explanation
Describe affective forecasting
Mental assessments of future emotions or happiness - these help people make decisions
T/F: People are happier talking to a stranger than talking to a romantic partner or keeping to oneself
True
Contrast maximizing and satisficing
Maximizing refers to putting maximum effort toward attaining an ideal outcome (liked with lower SWB)
Satisficing is choosing a satisfactory result, which is most common
How does evolutionary theory explain prosocial behaviour?
Kin altruism - Helping your family propagates your genes
Reciprocal altruism - Helping others who help you can increase survival success as they are likely to return favours
Competitive altruism - Helping others can increase your reputation and make you more desirable
Describe and give an example of each: common resource dilemma and public goods dilemma
Common resource dilemma (aka take some/social trap)- a common goods exist (ex. limited cow pasture)
Public goods dilemma (aka give some/social fence)- a good is being created but should you contribute (ex. campus radio)
List factors that predict successful resolutions of social dilemmas
- When people behave ethically and consider the community rather than themselves
- Certainty (knowledge of amount available/needed)
- High communication
- Small group sizes
- If is is normative
- sharing a common identity (in-group)
Describe two pieces of evidence that support the idea of ‘intuitive pro sociality’
It is our impulse to cooperate and act prosocially - people make cooperative decisions when they don’t have a lot of time
Children have little delay of gratification or executive control which allows them to act more prosocially
when people act prosocially that have an increase in pleasure (monkey study)
Briefly describe the biophilia hypothesis and the evidence that supports this claim
People have an innate connection and attraction to nature or ‘lifelike’ things
- Nature exposure is related to increase moods, longevity, overall health, etc.
- Windowless office workers seek plants and pictures
T/F: Nature relatedness is negatively correlated with SWB
False - it is positively correlated
What feature(s) produce optimal lighting design in a building?
The key is provide people with options as the optimal lighting can change throughout the day
Blue light is associated with early mornings but should be limited near the end of the day
Why might ‘fractal; geometry’ be useful when designing a built space?
Fractal geometry is often found in nature so when you build buildings that are similar to nature is has a positive effect on SWB
What does the reasonable person model suggest about the links between physical environments and psychological well-being?
The reasonable person model (RPM) is a psychological framework which argues that people are at their best when their informational needs are met.
What other benefits does exposure to nature have besides SWB?
Combats cognitive fatigue, promotes creativity, decreases pain and recovery time, increases cardiovascular health, prolongs mortality. and decreases aggression and crime
What is biophilic design?
Using nature or natural elements in built environments (natural materials, natural forms, fractal geometry, prospect & refuge)
Are virtual environments (internet) ruining mental health?
If technology is used for active social engagement and creating new connections it promotes positive feelings
However, if it is used for social comparison and competing with others it decreases well-being
Contrast prosocial behaviour and altruism
Prosical behaviour refers to anything that increases another’s well-being. It is different from altruism as the actor in prosocial behaviours can also have clear personal benefits
Which big 5 traits are most strongly associated with cooperation?
Agreeableness and conscientiousness
Describe the ‘prototype approach’ to defining love
First you ask people to identify the features of love then you ask other people to rate the features on how central/typical they are
What features are most prototypical of love?
Trust, caring, and honesty
these are more consistent with companionate love
Distinguish between companionate love and passionate love
Companionate love (Storge) - begins with familiarity, similarity, and a deep and close friendship (still present in romantic relationships)
Passionate love (Eros) - physical attraction, intense feelings, promotes a sexual relationship
On average who is more prone to think of love in a companionate way?
Women and people in collectivist/interdependent societies
Why should we avoid calling Oxytocin the ‘love hormone’?
Oxytocin isn’t specific to love - it is related to a variety of things, even negative things, such as envy or in-group bias
There are also methodological issues in research
Which personality characteristics predict relationship satisfaction and longevity?
Agreeableness, emotional stability, and conscientiousness
But also secure attachment styles
What is capitalization in relationships?
Sharing good news with others
However, we are more concerned with the response. Active-constructivist responses are best for close relationships
Briefly describe self-expansion theory with regard to relationships
Self-expansion theory makes the assumption that people want to grow and develop
People expand their self-concept by taking on desirable characteristics of their partners and continue to grow by engaging in new experiences
What are two positive responses to conflict in relationships?
Forgiveness and humour
T/F: Opposites attract
False - People are more likely to have close relationships with people in which they have similarities with
T/F: Received social support is more beneficial than perceived support
False - have perceived support is more beneficial as people tend to not need actual support when they know that it is there
Actual support can also elicit guilt in that people feel the need to repay them
T/F: There is a positive relationship between SWB and sex
True - Up to once weekly
Which type of humour is the best at reducing conflict?
Affilative humour which draws on shared experiences (inside jokes)
What is resilience?
Resilience refers to well-being despite difficult circumstances
What factors/characteristics predict resilient responses?
- Less direct exposure to challenge
- Positive emotionality
- Optimism
- Sense of control (self-efficacy)
- Intelligence
- High SES
- Religion
- High social support
What kinds of changes do people report as post-traumatic growth?
A sense of re-constructing the self, increased life meaning, closer relationships, spiritual change
Compare and contrast the evidence for the benefits of perceived vs. actual growth following challenges
Perceived growth typically does not reflect actual growth because people are not good at reporting whether or not they have changed
Some people report higher SWB after a challenging event but others can spend time searching for meaning and ‘fail’ which negatively impacts their SWB
Which personality features are associated with resilience?
Emotional stability, positive emotionality, general sense of control, and good self-regulation
Along with adaptive coping styles that are problem focuses, avoid rumination, and are prone to finding some benefit or seeing a challenge in adversity
Why is resilience sometimes described as ‘ordinary magic’?
Because children who experience chronic adversity often grow up to become productive and well-adjusted adults; and this is all due to normal human coping skills
