Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
Learning is a change in ___________ due to ____________.
A
behavior; experience
2
Q
The human fondness for sugar and _______ illustrates that behavior that has survival value at one time may be harmful at another time.
A
salt
3
Q
The sight of a chick with an open mouth reliably results in an adult bird providing food. The chick’s open mouth is an example of a ____________.
A
releaser
4
Q
Evolution is the product of ________ and ________________.
A
variation; natural selection
5
Q
A reflex is a _______ between a specific ________ and a simple response.
A
relationship; event/stimulus
6
Q
_________ is an example of a general behavior trait.
A
Authentic
7
Q
_____________ is a reduction in the intensity or probability of a response due to repeated exposure to a stimulus that elicits that response.
A
Habituation
8
Q
Learning can be thought of as evolved ____________.
A
modifiability
9
Q
The chief limitation of natural selection as a mechanism for coping with change is that it is ________.
A
gradual
10
Q
Darwin suggested that natural selection is analogous to ___________.
A
breeding
11
Q
The quotation, “Change is the only constant,” is attributed to ______.
A
Lucretius
12
Q
Work on selective breeding in ___________ over a period of 40 years shows that behavioral characteristics can be selectively bred so that the descendants behave more like a different species than like their own ancestors.
A
foxes
13
Q
The blugold, a fictitious bird-like animal, breaks out in a cold sweat whenever exposed to the sun. The relationship between sun exposure and the sweat response is most likely ______.
A
a reflex
14
Q
Modal action patterns are induced by events called ______________.
A
releasers
15
Q
The chief advantage of learning over natural selection as a means of adapting to change is that learning _______.
A
is faster
16
Q
__________ are now often called modal (or fixed) action patterns.
A
Instincts
17
Q
___________ is the product of variation and natural selection.
A
Evolution
18
Q
Behavior is anything an animal or person does that can be _________.
A
measured
19
Q
Reflex responses are the behaviors that are modified by ________ and ______________.
A
habituation; classical conditioning
20
Q
Any change in a gene is called ____________.
A
mutation
21
Q
_________ is the number of correct performances (responses/answers) per minute.
A
Fluency
22
Q
The law of _________ says that the simplest explanation that fits the data is best.
A
parsimony
23
Q
The kind of experiment that can be likened to turning a light switch on and off is an ____________.
A
ABA reversal design
24
Q
A change in __________ means a change in the form a behavior takes.
A
topography
25
The cumulative record measures learning as a change in ________ of behavior.
rate
26
The figure below shows learning as a change in ______.
topography
27
A teacher who looks for an increase in the number of correct performances per minute is using _______ as a measure of learning.
fluency
28
The kind of experiment that is most likely to require statistical analysis is a/an _______.
between-subjects experiment
29
In within-subject experiments, each subject's performance is compared with his or her performance during a ______.
baseline period
30
A ____________ approach examines relations between environmental and behavioral events.
natural science
31
Statistics are most useful in interpreting _________ data.
accurate
32
In an experiment, the __________ variable is the variable that the researcher manipulates.
independent
33
In a ___________ design, each subject acts as both experimental and control subject.
within-subject
34
The common element among measures of speed, rate, and latency is _________.
time
35
The chief virtue of matched sampling is that matching reduces the amount of ________ between groups.
uncontrolled variability
36
____________ design experiments assume that there are no important differences among participants.
Between-subjects
37
The essential element of a between-subjects design is that the independent variable varies across _________________.
participants
38
A person who argues that something is true because “Everyone knows that...” is relying on ________.
anecdotal evidence
39
The lack of generalizability due to experimental control is referred to as ____________.
low external validity
40
In a study on learning, the dependent variable is __________.
a change in behavior
41
In Pavlovian conditioning, the appearance of the US is normally __________ the appearance of the CS.
contingent on
42
Pavlov’s main interest initially was ______.
physiology
43
Ivan Pavlov is best known for his research on the ________.
psychic reflex
44
The author of your text (Chance) uses the terms unconditional reflex and conditional reflex, but he notes that most authors use the terms _______ and _______ reflexes.
unconditioned and conditioned
45
What fascinated Pavlov most about his salivating dogs was that _________.
the dogs began to salivate before receiving food
46
John, "Mr. Anxiety," finally musters up the courage to ask the beautiful and popular Carole to go to the movies. She finds the idea so ridiculous that she laughs out loud only moments after he has gotten the question out. John's face turns the color of a steamed lobster. In classical conditioning terms, John's experience is an example of ________.
trace conditioning
47
Pavlovian conditioning is also called ________ conditioning.
classical
48
Higher-order conditioning is probably most important to ___________.
humans
49
In Pavlovian conditioning, contiguity usually refers to the ________.
time between CS and US
50
When exposure to a stimulus prior to pairing with a US interferes with conditioning, the phenomenon is called ________.
latent inhibition
51
If, following conditioning, a CS is repeatedly presented without the US, the procedure is called ________.
extinction
52
Spontaneous recovery is associated with _______.
extinction
53
The equation, ΔVn = c (λ- Vn -1), is associated with the _______________ of Pavlovian conditioning.
Rescorla-Wagner model
54
Generally speaking, the shorter the CS-US interval, the _____ the rate of learning; the shorter the inter-trial interval, the _____ the rate of learning.
faster; slower
55
The least effective form of Pavlovian conditioning is probably the ____________ procedure.
backward conditioning
56
In __________ conditioning, a neutral stimulus is paired with a well-established CS.
higher-order
57
In __________ conditioning, the CS begins and ends before the US appears.
trace
58
In __________ conditioning the CS and US overlap.
delay
59
Each pairing of a CS and US is one _________.
trial
60
_________________ is the result of the CS having appeared alone before conditioning trials.
Latent inhibition
61
The CS in the Little Albert experiment was a __________.
rat
62
The US in the Little Albert experiment was a _________.
loud sound
63
In treating Peter’s fear of rabbits, Mary Cover Jones used a procedure called__________.
counterconditioning
64
The most recent variation of counterconditioning involves__________.
virtual reality
65
The studies of Carolyn and Arthur Staats demonstrating that neutral words paired with pleasant words become pleasant are examples of__________.
higher-order conditioning
66
The research that is most helpful in understanding racial prejudice is probably that of __________.
Staats and Staats
67
The term used to refer to sexual behavior disapproved of by society is ___________.
paraphillas
68
Pavlov found that when he paired painful stimuli with food, the dog came to show no distress at the painful stimuli. This experiment may help explain __________ behavior in humans.
masochistic
69
People are most likely to tolerate painful and humiliating events if these events consistently __________.
precede positive events
70
In ______ therapy, a stimulus that elicits an inappropriate response is paired with a negative stimulus such as shock or an emetic drug.
aversion
71
Barry Maletzky treated exhibitionists by having them imagine that they were about to perform the inappropriate behavior, and then _______.
exposing them to an unpleasant odor
72
Blue jays usually do not eat Monarch butterflies. This is an example of a / an __________.
conditioned taste aversion
73
The phenomenon of __________ suggests that we should be more likely to develop aversions to novel foods than to familiar ones.
latent inhibition
74
The first person to use counterconditioning to treat a phobia was probably ___________.
Mary Cover Jones
75
John Garcia’s first hint about the role of conditioning in taste aversions occurred when he got sick after ________.
eating licorice
76
Prejudice is an example of a ___________________.
conditioned emotional response
77
____________________ suggests that drug cravings and other withdrawal symptoms in addicts are the conditional responses established by conditioning.
Shepard Siegel
78
The US in Pavlov’s experiment was ___________.
food presentation
79
The CS in Pavlov’s experiment was _____________.
ticking metronome
80
The CR in Pavlov’s experiment was ___________.
salivation
81
E. L. Thorndike's studies of learning started as an attempt to understand _______.
animal intelligence
82
In one of Thorndike's puzzle boxes, a door would fall open when a cat stepped on a treadle, thus allowing the cat to reach food outside the box. Eventually the cat would step on the treadle as soon as it was put into the box. Thorndike concluded that ________.
treadle stepping increased because it had a "satisfying effect"
83
Thorndike plotted the results of his puzzle box experiments as graphs. The resulting curves show a _____ with succeeding trials.
decrease in time
84
The law of effect says that _______.
behavior is a function of its consequences
85
Thorndike made important contributions to all of the following fields except _____.
social psychology
86
Thorndike emphasized that we learn mainly from _______.
success
87
Operant learning may also be referred to as _______.
instrumental learning
88
Charles Catania identified three characteristics that define reinforcement. These include all of the following except _______.
the consequence of the behavior must be positive
89
The one thing that all reinforcers have in common is that they _______.
strengthen behavior
90
Negative reinforcement is also called _______.
escape-avoidance training
91
The opposite of a conditioned reinforcer is a ______.
primary reinforcer
92
All of the following are recognized kinds of reinforcers except ______.
classical
93
Clark Hull's explanation of reinforcement assumed that reinforcers ______.
reduce a drive
94
Secondary reinforcers are also called _______ reinforcers.
conditioned
95
Money is a good example of a _______ reinforcer.
generalized
96
An action that improves the effectiveness of a reinforcer is called a ______.
motivating operation
97
_____is a neurotransmitter that seems to be important in reinforcement.
Dopamine
98
The Premack principle says that reinforcement involves _______.
a relation between behaviors
99
Schlinger and Blakely found that preceding a reinforcer with a stimulus reduced the negative effects of _________________.
delayed reinforcement
100
John Nevin suggests that the increase in strength due to reinforcement can be considered behavioral _________.
momentum
101
Shaping is the reinforcement of successive _______.
approximations of a desired behavior
102
The figure below illustrates
shaping
103
All of the following are useful tips for shaping behavior except ________.
never back up
104
The first step in building a behavior chain is to do a ______.
task analysis
105
The classic experiments on insightful problem solving were done with chimpanzees by _________.
Wolfgang Kohler
106
Insightful problem solving is best viewed as an example of _______.
operant learning
107
The banana experiment by Robert Epstein and colleagues, which paralleled Kohler’s experiments with chimps, demonstrated that insight ______.
depends on an organism’s learning history
108
In her work with porpoises, Karen Pryor gradually realized that what she had to do to get novel behavior from the animals was to _______.
reinforce novel behavior
109
Superstitious behavior is behavior that occurs repeatedly despite the fact that it __________.
does not produce the reinforcers that maintain it
110
Studies of learned helplessness use the ______ procedure.
escape training
111
Robert Eisenberger and his colleagues demonstrated that reinforcement can establish learned ______.
industriousness
112
The most important difference between Pavlovian and operant learning concerns the role of ________.
behavior
113
Promised rewards tend to _________ creativity when they are not contingent on creative behavior.
decrease
114
The children's game, “Hot and Cold,” is different from shaping in that it includes ____________.
punishment
115
_____________ reinforcement plays an important role in superstitious behavior.
Coincidental
116
Research suggests that learned helplessness can be prevented through __________ training.
immunization
117
If one of the behavior links in a behavior chain does not occur, then __________ must take place.
shaping
118
Behavioral psychologist will often assert that “Aha!” moments are brought about through __________.
an organism's previous learning history
119
When shaping a new behavior, ______________ slows or prevents learning and typically produces obvious frustration in both the student and trainer.
delayed reinforcement
120
A common misconception about operant learning is that it accounts only for ___________.
very simple forms of behavior
121
A pigeon is confronted with two disks, one green, the other red. The bird receives food on a VI 20” schedule when it pecks the green disk, and on a VI 10" schedule when it pecks the red one. You predict that the bird will peck _________.
the red disk about twice as often as the green disk
122
Stretching the ratio too rapidly or too far can produce ___________.
ratio strain
123
The best schedule for shaping new behavior is ________________.
CRF
124
A schedule in which reinforcement is contingent on the behavior of more than one subject is a ___________ schedule.
cooperative
125
Studies of choice involve ___________ schedules.
concurrent
126
_____________ schedules produce cumulative records with scallops.
Fixed interval/FI
127
Alan Christopher studied the role of intermittent reinforcement in ________________.
compulsive gambling
128
The ___________ hypothesis emphasizes the role of internal cues in explaining the PRE.
frustration
129
A schedule in which a behavior is never reinforced is called a/n ____________ schedule.
extinction
130
Ratio strain is associated with the procedure known as ____________.
stretching the response ratio
131
Strictly speaking, the reinforcers provided in a ___________ schedule are non-contingent.
fixed time
132
In CRF, the ratio of responses to reinforcement is ___________.
1:1
133
After a reinforcement, the rate of the reinforced behavior may fall to or near zero before increasing again. The period during which the behavior occurs infrequently is called a ___________________.
between ratio pause
134
John spent his summer picking cantaloupes for a farmer. The farmer paid John a certain amount for every basket of cantaloupes picked. John worked on a _________.
FR1 schedule
135
Bill spends his summer in the city panhandling. Every day he takes a position on a busy corner and accosts passersby saying, “Can you spare some change?” Most people ignore him, but every now and then someone gives him money. Bill’s reinforcement schedule is best described as a _________ .
VR schedule
136
Your text reports the case of a man who apparently made hundreds of harassing phone calls. The man’s behavior was most likely on a/n _________.
VR schedule
137
A CRF schedule is synonymous with a _________.
FR1 schedule
138
Of the four explanations of the PRE, the one that essentially says there is no such thing is the __________ hypothesis.
response unit
139
The ___________ asserts that, given a choice of activities, the proportion of responses to each activity will reflect the availability of reinforcement for each.
matching law
140
John wants to teach Cindy, age five, the alphabet. He plans to reinforce correct responses with praise and small pieces of candy. What sort of schedule should he use during early stages of learning?
CRF schedule
141
The first formal studies of punishment were probably done by _________.
Thorndike
142
Each time Charles, who has a lisp, says “Mithithippi” or the like, his wife, Evelyn, yells, “Idiot!” However, there is no evidence that Evelyn’s efforts to reduce the frequency of such mispronunciations have been effective. We can therefore conclude that ______.
Charles’s behavior has not been punished.
143
The word positive in positive punishment refers to the fact that _______.
something is added
144
If a rat receives a shock each time it presses a lever, but not otherwise, we can say that _______.
the shock is contingent on lever pressing
145
Delaying delivery of a punisher is most likely to ______.
reduce its effectiveness
146
David Camp and colleagues found that, compared to a two-second delay in punishment, a 30-second delay resulted in _______.
about half as much response suppression
147
Generally speaking, the more intense a punisher, the _______.
more it suppresses behavior
148
Farmer Gable had a problem with motorcyclists riding across his meadow land, tearing up sod and frightening his cattle. He installed barbed wire fencing in the area and no longer had a problem. Gable’s approach is best described as an example of _______.
response prevention
149
When a student repeatedly behaves in an inappropriate way, probably the teacher’s first step should be to ______.
try to discover what is reinforcing the behavior
150
According to the two-process theory, punishment involves two procedures: _________ and _________.
classical learning; operant learning
151
Negative punishment is also called ____________.
penalty
152
Differential reinforcement is used in combination with ___________ of the unwanted behavior.
extinction
153
Differential reinforcement of __________ behavior is the procedure of reinforcing behavior that cannot be performed at the same time as the unwanted behavior.
incompatible
154
Punishers are defined by their effects on __________.
the behavior of the individual receiving the punisher
155
The fact that an annoying behavior occurs implies that it has _____________ consequences.
reinforcing
156
In a DRL 10” schedule, the effect of pressing a lever after eight seconds is to _____________.
delay reinforcement
157
Taking away food will be a more effective punisher if ___________.
you are hungry
158
The process by which the removal of a stimulus or event increases or maintains the rate of a response is called _______________.
negative reinforcement
159
For Premack, a reinforcing stimulus is any relatively high-probability behavior. A/an ________ stimulus would then be any relatively low-probability behavior.
aversive
160
If a teacher removes a misbehaving student from the location where misbehavior occurs, and then spends time with the student or provides alternative sources of reinforcement, what is likely to occur?
the frequency of misbehavior will decrease
161
Skinner devised a mechanical teaching machine that divided the material to be learned into short segments called ________.
frames
162
Problem behavior in children can usually be dealt with effectively through ___________.
differential reinforcement
163
Charles Madsen and his colleagues asked a teacher to _______. This change in teacher behavior produced a marked reduction in misconduct.
ignore misbehavior and praise students when they behaved well
164
Hopkins and Conard found that when teachers made a few simple changes in how they taught, changes that included a shift from reprimands and threats to praise and positive feedback, students advanced at ______ the normal rate in reading.
more than twice
165
In the treatment of long-standing self-injurious behavior, punishment is often ________.
effective
166
Research suggests that bonuses based on employee performance can improve productivity ________.
and reduce company costs
167
Some people believe that a first language is acquired mainly without ___________ and simply through ___________ to the language.
instruction; exposure
168
Betty Hart and Todd Risley found that the ______________ provided by parents is the key factor in normal child development.
quality of the linguistic environment
169
To decrease the frequency of attention-seeking behavior in a classroom, a ______________ schedule of reinforcement would be the most appropriate procedure to implement.
DRL
170
The Headsprout reading program is designed so that most students will be successful most of the time; high success rates lead to __________________.
little frustration and steady progress
171
Operant learning research suggests that delusions are the products of a disordered _________.
environment
172
To eliminate tantrums effectively, the recommended approach is to use ____________ in conjunction with a form of differential reinforcement.
extinction
173
Carr and McDowell found that a boy's scratching was reinforced mainly by ___.
parental attention
174
CIMT is an operant-based treatment for paralysis developed by __________.
Edward Taub
175
CIMT _____________ movement of a ______________ limb.
reinforces; defective
176
The effects of feedback, alone, on improving worker performance are _______________.
not always sufficient
177
Lamere and colleagues found that bonuses based on worker performance got _________ results in comparison to salary alone, and that the difference between a 9% bonus and a 3% bonus was ______________.
better; nothing
178
Hal Markowitz found that captive animals seem to enjoy life more when they ________________.
can obtain some of their food through their own efforts
179
Shaping procedures used to develop a new behavior are most effective when __________ is __________.
reinforcement; immediate
180
Heathcock and colleagues used the mobile kicking procedure as a way of assessing the health of ____________________.
premature infants
181
The first studies of observational learning ______.
failed to find evidence of observational learning in animals
182
Learning is a change in behavior due to experience. In observational learning, the experience consists of _______.
observing events and their consequences
183
If an observer looks on as a model’s behavior is reinforced, we speak of _______.
vicarious reinforcement
184
Herbert and Harsh compared the behavior of cats that had observed a model perform an act 30 times with cats that had observed only 15 performances. They found that _________.
cats that observed 30 performances did substantially better than those that observed 15
185
The tendency to imitate modeled behavior even when doing so is not reinforced is called _______.
generalized imitation
186
The tendency to imitate modeled events that are irrelevant to solving a problem is called _______.
over-imitation
187
The learning history of observers has a powerful influence on what they learn from models. This is illustrated by the fact that chimpanzees that have had __________ training get more from observing a model than those that have not.
language
188
Those who are most likely to learn from observing a model are probably _______.
adults
189
Whether children imitate an aggressive model depends largely on ________.
whether the model's behavior is reinforced or punished
190
The text identifies two types of observational learning, __________ and _________.
social; asocial
191
Ellen Levy and her colleagues found that children would imitate a model`s reinforced preferences for __________.
pictures
192
Some researchers use a _________ condition to study asocial observational learning
ghost
193
_____________ was one of the first people to demonstrate observational learning in animals.
Carl Warden
194
Models who are not proficient at the skill they demonstrate are called __________ models.
learning
195
The traditional view of observational learning is what the author of your text calls _______ observational learning.
active model
196
According to ________________, attention refers to the influence of environmental events on behavior.
the operant learning model
197
Models are most likely to be helpful when the task is _____________.
difficult
198
______________ processes involve using the representations formed during retention to perform a modeled behavior.
Motor-reproductive
199
___________ is NOT involved in social observational learning.
A ghost condition
200
To Bandura, we _______ our attention to certain events; in the operant learning model, certain events ________ our attention.
direct; capture
201
According to the _____________ metaphor, experiences are stashed in the brain like photographs in an album.
storage
202
Forgetting is the deterioration of ____________.
performance
203
The term _______ memory refers to learned behavior that can be expressed, usually in words.
declarative
204
Memories that cannot be expressed are called _____.
nondeclarative
205
Riding a bicycle is an example of _____ memory.
procedural
206
To measure forgetting, Ebbinghaus used the ____________ method.
relearning
207
Forgetting can be measured as a flattening of the generalization gradient, a procedure called gradient____________.
degradation
208
Forgetting can be studied by requiring the subject to match a stimulus presented earlier, a procedure called ____________.
DMTS
209
Meaningful material is forgotten less readily than nonsense material. This shows the importance of ____________.
previous learning
210
The period between training and testing for forgetting is called the _______ interval.
retention
211
Practicing a skill even after it is performed without errors is an example of _______________.
overlearning
212
Some researchers argue that forgetting is due to a failure of ________________.
stimulus control
213
The research of _____________ and colleagues raises doubts about the trustworthiness of eye-witness testimony.
Elizabeth Loftus
214
The work of Rovee-Collier and others on forgetting in babies who learned to move a mobile by kicking illustrates the role of ___________ in forgetting.
context
215
__________ is defined as number of correct responses per minute.
Fluency
216
In ______________ interference, new learning interferes with old learning.
retroactive
217
The likely reinforcer in paired associate learning is ______________.
the sight or sound of the correct response
218
Though the amount of forgetting varies directly with the length of the retention interval, ________ is not a cause of forgetting.
the passage of time
219
Asking their students to take the same seat at each class meeting, particularly at the beginning of the year, is an example of the likely use of ___________ to recall students' names.
contextual clues
220
When ____________ proceeds more rapidly than it would have immediately following training, forgetting has occurred.
extinction
