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final exam Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Religious Dogma to be Believed

A

The Earth is only about 6000 years old-Archbishop James Ussher- a. The Earth was created by God in 4004 B.C. b. The Earth and organisms do not change.

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2
Q

How did the Earth come to be the way it

is today?

A

1.Catastrophism-Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) (Georges Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Baron de Cuvier) 2.Uniformitarianis-James Hutton (1726-1797), Charles Lyell (1797-1875) Principles of Geology-William Smith (1769-1839) Stratigraphy

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3
Q

Early Theories of Evolution

A

Jean Baptiste Lamark-Inheritance of Acquired Characters ex.-giraffes exceptions(weight lifters, mice)

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4
Q

Population Studies

A

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)

      1. An Essay on the Principle of Population-Because many organisms do not survive competition for the same resources and because they cannot overcome other limiting factors in the environment (that is, there is a "struggle for existence") overpopulation does not usually occur.
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5
Q

Charles Darwin

A
  1. The “Beagle”
  2. The Galápagos Islands
    a. Darwin’s Finches
    b. Galápagos Tortoises
  3. Evolution: How Does it Work?
    a. How does evolution occur?
    b. Hints: Lyell, Malthus, Breeders
    i. Lyell
    a) Time
    ii. Malthus
    a) A struggle for existence
    iii. Breeders
    a) Artificial Selection
    i) Pigeons
    ii) Dogs
    c. Answer: Natural Selection
    i. Struggle for Existence
    ii. Variation / Adaptation
    iii. Survival of the Fittest
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6
Q

Alfred Russel Wallace

A
  1. Malay Archipelago
    a. Islands (again) plus…
  2. Sickness
    a. Malthus (again) Equals…
  3. Evolution through Natural Selection
    Natural Selection Idea (again)
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7
Q

Evolution Theory Misconception

A

What the theory actually said was that both
apes and humans evolved from a common ancestor (several branches).
However…
B. Understanding, Perhaps, But…
1. Some reactions were for other reasons
(e.g., social).
2. Other reaction was on religious grounds.

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8
Q

The Scopes Trial

A

Tennessee Anti-Evolution Law

 B. The Scopes "Monkey" Trial (1925)
  1. The Participants (John Thomas Scopes, William Jennings Bryan, Clarence Darrow
  2. The Outcome-Scopes lost…, Was fined $100, but…The verdict was overturned on a technicality.
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9
Q

Evidence From Paleontology

A

A.Extinct versus Extant, B,Fossils, C.”Missing Links” and Transitional Forms(Horses, Protoavis, Archaeopteryx, and others, Lungfish)
D.”Living Fossils” [Relict Organisms]
(Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba, Wollemi Pine (Wollemia nobilis, Coelacanths (Latimeria)
E.Geological Dating

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10
Q

Evidence From Comparative Anatomy

A

Analogous Structures-a. Perform the same function but are derived from different structures (e.g., the wings of birds and the
wings of insects)
2. Homologous Structures-a. Perform different functions but are derived from the same basic
structures (e.g., wings and arms)
3. The more homologous structures there
are the more closely related organisms
are evolutionarily.

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11
Q

Evidence From Embryology

A

“Ontogeny Recapitulates Phylogeny”

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12
Q

Evidence From Biogeography

A

Continental Drift [Plate Tectonics]

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13
Q

Evidence From Experiments

A 
A."Experiments"
1. Peppered Moth (Biston betularia)
2. DDT
3. Antibiotics
B. Darwin's Prediction
 1. Niche
 2. Coevolution
 3. Convergent Evolution
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14
Q

Evidence From Hybridization

A

Animals and Plants

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15
Q

Evidence From Vestigial Organs

A

Legs and Human Vestigial Structures

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16
Q

Evidence From Molecular Biology

A

Genetic Code, Proteins, Chromosomes

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17
Q

What drives natural selection and/or how are traits passed on to offspring?

A

1.Fluid Hypothesis-a. A blending of materials
— in the blood?
2. Particle Hypothesis-b. Combination of “factors”— in the cell?

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18
Q

Mendel’s First Law

A

The Law of Segregation-a. Each “particle” [gene] is a separate entity not connected to any others. [Today we know this is not entirely
correct.]

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19
Q

Mendel’s Second Law

A

The Law of Independent Assortment
a. Each trait [gene] is on a separate “particle” [chromosome] and each “particle” moves separately (independently) from any other particle.

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20
Q

Where do variations come from?

A
  1. Genetic Recombinations
  2. Reproductive Recombinations
  3. Mutations
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21
Q

How are variations maintained?

A

Gene Pool- a. The frequency of traits (carried on genes) in a population stays the same
unless something atypical occurs to change them.
b. Evolution can be defined as a change in
the frequency of traits in the gene pool.
2. The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Equation
a. An equation that can be used to model
the changes in a gene pool.
p + q = 1
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
AA Aa aA aa

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22
Q

Where do changes in the gene pool originate?

A

Anything that changes the normal genetic
interactions can have an effect on the gene
pool.

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23
Q

Mutation[gp]

A 
1. A change in the genetic makeup of an
               organism.
2. Harmful Mutations
3. Neutral Mutations
4. Advantageous Mutations
24
Q

Gene Flow[gp]

A

Migration-a. Immigrants add genes to population.

b. Emigrants take genes away from a population.

25
Q

Genetic Drift[gp]

A
  1. Bottleneck Effect a. A reduction in the population limits the numbers of genes present.
  2. Founder Effect a. New populations derived from only a few immigrants have gene frequencies that differ from the original population.
26
Q

Nonrandom Mating[gp]

A
  1. Abnormal mating patterns can affect the
    frequency of genes in a population.
  2. Reproductive Isolation of Subpopulations
    a. Temporal: mating at different times
    b. Behavioral: correct mating cues not given
    c. Mechanical: body parts do not match
    d. Gametic: sperm and egg do not match
    e. Geographical: subpopulations are
    physically separated and cannot mate
27
Q

Sympatric Speciation

A
  1. Occurs when subpopulations exist in the
    same area.
  2. Usually occurs because of increases in
    chromosome numbers.
    a. Common in plants; rare in animals.
28
Q

Allopatric Speciation

A
  1. Often occurs when geographic changes
    occur to separate parts of the population.
  2. Most common type of speciation.
29
Q

How does gene expression work?

A 
a. DNA is used to make more DNA
and DNA is used to make RNA.
b. RNA is used to make proteins.
c. These processes depend on procedures
involving complementary base pairing.
30
Q

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

A
  1. Messenger RNA [mRNA]
  2. Transfer RNA [tRNA]
  3. Ribosomal RNA [rRNA]
31
Q

The Code of Life

A
  1. The sequence of bases on the DNA molecule stores genetic information in a
    coded form.
  2. This information is transferred to a
    mRNA molecule.
  3. The coded information is then used to
    make proteins.
    a. Proteins are polymers (chains) of amino acids (about 20 are used).
32
Q

The “Central Dogma”

A

DNA is used to make RNA and RNA is
used to make proteins.
a. Transcription i. DNA is used to make RNA.
b. Translation i. RNA is used to make proteins.

33
Q

Reverse Transcription

A

RNA is used to make DNA and then
DNA is used to make RNA and
RNA is used to make proteins.

34
Q

Transcription of a Segmented Gene

A
  1. Exons
  2. Introns [“Junk DNA”]
  3. Primary Transcript
  4. Editing and Splicing
35
Q

Translation

A

Each codon of the mRNA molecule is “read”
and the amino acid called for is put into place
in the forming polypeptide chain.

36
Q

Translation Process

A

1.Initiation
a. Ribosomes / Polyribosomes
b. tRNA i. Anticodon
c.mRNA
2. Elongation
a. More amino acids of the chain are put into place.
3. Termination
a. Termination Codon
(UAA, UAG, or UGA)
b. The last amino acid is put into place, the protein chain is edited, and the protein takes on its final shape.

37
Q

Regulation of Gene Expression

A

A. Structural Genes
B. Regulatory Genes
C. Epigenetics

38
Q

Mutations

A
  1. A mutation is any change in genetic material (genes or chromosomes).
  2. Fortunately, the cell has a variety of methods for correcting most simple mutations.
39
Q

Mutations of Genes [Point Mutations]

A

silent mutations, missense, frameshift mutations,

40
Q

Mutations of Chromosomes

A

Changes in Chromosome Structure
a.Deletion(cr-du-chat syndrome) b.duplication c. Inversion d. translocation
Changes in Chromosome Number(haploid, diploid, polyploidy) Aneuploidy (“without true ploidy”)

41
Q

Mutagens

A

Physical Mutagens- a. Radiation

i. Ultraviolet Light a) Melanoma
ii. X-rays iii. Gamma Rays
2. Chemical Mutagens- a. Cytotoxins

42
Q

Cancer

A
  1. Proto-Oncogene
  2. Oncogene
  3. Carcinogens
  4. Viruses
    a. Retroviruses
43
Q

Genetic Screening

A

A. Karyotype

  1. Blood
  2. Chorionic Villus Biopsy-a. Chorionic Villi
  3. Amniocentesis-a. Amniotic Fluid
44
Q

Fertilization

A

Fusion of Sperm with Ovum- a. Zygote

45
Q

stem cell Development

A

1.Multiplication of Cells
a. Mitosis
2. Differentiation of Cells
3. Early Development
a. Morula
b. Blastula
c. Gastrula
4. Germ Layers
a. Endoderm
i. Forms many internal organs (parts of:
digestive system, urinary system,
respiratory system, etc.)
b. Mesoderm
i. Forms parts of skeletal, muscular,
integumentary, urogenital, and cardiovascular systems
c. Ectoderm
i. Forms parts of nervous system and
integumentary system

46
Q

stem cells

A

A. Primitive, undifferentiated cells capable of becoming other types of cells
B. Properties
1. Can reproduce many times without
differentiating; self-renewal
2. Can change into other types of cells;potency

47
Q

Totipotent Cells

A
  1. Can differentiate into all embryonic cell
    types
  2. Derived from early zygote divisions (first few cells)
48
Q

Pluripotent Cells

A
  1. Can differentiate into cells from any of the three germ layers
  2. Derived from later zygote divisions (later cells)
49
Q

Multipotent Cells

A

Can differentiate only into some related cell

types (such as various blood cells, etc.)

50
Q

Unipotent Cells

A

Can differentiate into only one cell type, but are self-renewing

51
Q

Embryonic Stem Cells

A

Derivation-1. Derived from morula or blastula cells
B. Potency- 1. Pluripotent
2. Can develop into any of the 200 cell types of the body

52
Q

Adult [Somatic] Stem Cells

A

A.Derivation-1. Derived from germ layer and later tissue cells
B. Potency- 1. Multipotent
2. Can only develop into “specialized” cell
types

53
Q

Research

A

embryonic(controversial)-How do you use pluripotent cells in the body? adult(less controversial) How do you turn multipotent cells into pluripotent cells? How do you make them do what you want them to do?

54
Q

Biotechnology–What is it?

A

Recombinant DNA EX.-Plant Frost Resistance, Agricultural Products, Insulin, Human Growth Hormone, etc., Medical Treatments a. Gene Therapy

55
Q

How is Recombining DNA Done?

A

Bacterial Genetics

  1. E. coli [Escherichia coli]
  2. Genome
    a. Chromosome
    b. Plasmid
  3. Bacterial Conjugation
  4. Transformation
    a. Recipient Organism
    b. Competent
  5. Transduction
    a. Bacteriophage
56
Q

Gene Splicing: Creating Recombinant DNA

A
  1. Isolate the appropriate gene
    a. Remove it from a chromosome
    i. Restriction Endonuclease
    ii. Sticky [Cohesive] Ends
    b. Synthesize it
  2. Isolate the appropriate plasmid
  3. Open the plasmid
    a. Restriction Endonuclease
    b. Sticky [Cohesive] Ends
  4. Insert the gene into the plasmid
    a. Ligase
  5. Place the plasmid into a bacterium
    a. Vector Method
    i. Bacteriophage
    b. Physical Method
    i. Transformation using calcium chloride
    ii. “Injection”
  6. Grow large amounts of the bacterium
  7. Harvest and purify the results
57
Q

Transgenic Plants and Animals

A 
A. Plants
   1. Plants that glow
   2. Foods
   3. Other possibilities
B. Animals
1. Animals that glow
2. Cows and goats as factories

biology 109 (1 decks)

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