Final Exam Flashcards
What were the most famous early childhood maltreatment cases in the U.S.
Wee Care Margaret Kelley Michaels, McMartin Preschool, Kern County, CA
What were the features of early cases
Highly suggestive interviewing techniques, allegations of widespread child abuse with bizarre features like satanic rituals and child sacrifice, people imprisoned based solely on children’s testimony
Traditionalist perspective
Pre-19070. Did not value children and rights. Did not think children could be helpful in court because early research shows they forget a lot and are prone to incorporating fantastical ideas
What caused a shift from the traditionalist to revisionist perspective
Children valued more in society. legislation like CAPTA and mandated reporting passed
Revisionist perspective
Children can be helpful and we should respect their abilities to talk about what happened. They cannot be wrong when it comes to things that happened to their body, so we should always believe them and it is okay to use suggestive techniques, especially because they will be reluctant
What caused the shift fro the revisionist perspective to the current view
- Early high profile cases- are children always accurate if they’re coming up with these fantastic claims with no evidence 2. Literature review by Ceci and Bruck shows that children can be influenced by suggestive interview techniques. Interviewers are responsible for how they talk to to children
Current View
Children can be reliable witnesses, but we cannot overestimate their abilities. Interviewers are responsible for talking to them in a way that gets an accurate and complete disclosure. They need to take the child’s abilities and limitations into account and use a child-centered approach
Believability
In psychology, a measure of accuracy, but not an objective measure in law
Competency
Witness has the ability to observe, remember, communicate, and tell the truth
2 types of competency
basic and truth-lie
What is tied to an increase in honesty
Asking children to promise to tell the truth. Truth-lie comprehension tests do not lead to an increase in honesty
Who determines competency
the judge
Credibility
Subjective juror opinion on whether children’s statements are believable
Reliability
statements are consistently good in quality or performance; should be able to be trusted
Beyond the ken of the jury
expert witness must have information beyond what the average juror would know
Hearsay
a statement made prior to court proceedings that is repeated in court
3 hearsay components
1) statement describing an event 2) statement made prior to court proceedings, where it is repeated 3) statement repeated to prove what person said actually happened
Why is hearsay usually inadmissible
you cannot cross-examine the person that made the hearsay statement in court
3 main exceptions to hearsay rule
excited utterance, medical diagnosis and treatment, and residual hearsay exception
excited utterance exception
describes a startling event; made when child is under emotional stress caused by event. some factors considered: child’s speech pattern, amount of time between event and disclosure, spontaneity of statement
medical diagnosis and treatment exception
statements made to medical professionals about medical history, present symptoms, pain and other sensations, and cause of illness or injury. needs to be made with motive to obtain diagnosis or treatment, with understanding that level of honesty can affect treatment and well-being
residual hearsay exception
Residual hearsay exception: reliable hearsay that doesn’t fit into other hearsay categories. Some factors considered are spontaneity, consistent statements, developmentally unusual sexual knowledge, and idiosyncratic detail.
types of questions
open-ended recall prompts, focused questions, recall-detailed questions, option-posing questions, and suggestive prompts
open-ended prompts
Invitations to talk about an experience. Elicit info from free-recall memory. Ex. Tell me everything that happened
focused questions
prompt children to provide specific detail. Ex. Tell me about his truck
recall-detailed questions
Wh-questions
option-posing questions
provide information for children to accept or reject. Ex. Multiple choice, yes/no
suggestive prompts
suggesting information children have not yet mentioned in the current interview, including explicitly leading questions
key to talking with kids
we don’t guide their terminology
4 types of words that are particularly difficult for children
prepositions, pronouns, temporal words, kinship terms
Elizabeth Loftus TED Talk
Talked about how memory is constructed and reconstructed. Memory changes after suggestion and even false memories of horrific abuse can be suggested
3 basic memory processes
encoding, storage, retrieval
ways to help with language limitations
Use active voice instead of passive voice, avoid negatives and double negatives, one question at a time, simple words, simple phrases, children’s terminology when possible, avoid tag questions, be alert to signals that the child may have difficulty comprehending
Suggestibility
the degree to which children’s encoding, storage, retrieval, and reporting of events can be influenced by a range of social and psychological factors
suggestibility social factors
authority figures, cooperative nature of children, peer pressure, peer conversations and rumors
psychological suggestibility factors
cognitive skills: source monitoring, confabulation, egocentric thinking, reality monitoring, and theory of mind. reconstructive nature of memories leave it open to errors, bias, and false memories. language- pronunciation errors, using words without knowing what they mean in all contexts, trouble with temporal words, pronouns, prepositions, and kinship terms
what is the most important determinant of memory capacity?
age
suggestive interviewing techniques
stereotype induction, selective feedback/reinforcement, repeated questions, suggesting info a child has not provided
Sam Stone Study
stereotype induction (sam is clumsy). kids that got stereotype and suggestive interviewing (shown false evidence) were much more likely to say they saw Sam do bad things
Paco study
selective reinforcement. kids given positive feedback about responses were most likely to say yes that both plausible and bizarre events happened
rumor study
highly detailed rumors will make kids believed they experienced false event. rumors are more damaging when they come from peers, as opposed to overheard adult conversations
T/F: sexual behavior problems are rare
true
T/F: behavioral indicators are enough to diagnose sexual abuse on their own
false
other causes that lead to sexual behavior problems
hereditary factors, substandard parenting, family violence, exposure to media
T/F: some interest in sexual parts or behavior is a normal part of child development
true
T/F: early sexual curiosity is reinforcing because the physical sensations that maintain sexual interest are present early in life
true
T/F: sexually curious behavior drops off after early childhood
false, children just hide it better because they know adults disapprove
Logical fallacies
a mistake in reasoning where base rates are used incorrectly or someone uses one truth to make a generalization about another, but draws a false conclusion
T/F: most CSA perpetrators are boyfriends and husbands. Therefore, most boyfriends and husbands are CSA perpetrators
false
T/F: anxiety rates are very high in abused children. So, in a large sample of anxious children, most of them are probably abused
false
T/F: children with developmental delays or intellectual disabilities are at a higher risk of being abused
true
What should interviewers do before meeting with a kid with ID
gather information about the nature and extent of their disability. get an idea of their strengths and limitations. see what accommodations they might need, like more frequent breaks or a support person
what is a yes bias
a tendency for children with ID to say yes more often to questions
What is a good way to get a general idea of the cognitive abilities of a child with an intellectual disability
determine their mental age. This is done by comparing their IQ score with peers of the same chronological age
T/F: most kids with intellectual disabilities or developmental delays will not get their day in court
true
T/F: children with disabilities cannot be reliable witnesses
false, if questioned in an appropriate way they can provide good info
What is facilitated communication?
A discredited technique that is unfortunately still sometimes used today. A facilitator holds the child’s hand to steady it as they type with one finger or point to letters on a chart
What population is facilitated communication primarily used with
children with autism, but also other nonverbal kids, mainly in schools
Does facilitated communication work? if not, what is really happening?
no. facilitators are subconsciously guiding the child’s hand to type what they are thinking. Essentially putting words in the child’s mouth and communicating complex ideas that they child shows no signs of understanding
How did they disprove facilitated communication?
double blind tests where the facilitator and child were separated by a partition and shown either the same or different pictures. The child always typed what the facilitator saw, not what they saw
What was one reason the efficacy of facilitated communication came into question
a number of children made abuse allegations against family members, with no other evidence. people often believed the allegation made via facilitated communication
what was the biggest issue with facilitated communication?
People started adopting it without any research or safety testing. they were so eager to communicate with children with autism that they jumped on the bandwagon without looking at the validity of the technique or risks
T/F: video and audio recording the entire interview is best practice
true
When should the interview be conducted
as soon as possible after the initial disclosure
what is best practice in terms of question types
use open-ended questions throughout the interview, delaying the use of more focused questions for as long as possible
T/F: the use of dolls and diagrams are considered best practice
false
What are some general considerations you should make when talking to a child
consider their age, development, and culture
What should an interview space be like
a safe, child friendly environment. neutrally decorated, quiet, furnished to encourage conversation between adults and children, pleasant without being overly distracting, private without others in the room, informal and somewhat familiar, safe, and culturally inclusive, no materials that encourage play or fantasy
how should forensic interviewers dress
avoid clothes that draw attention to authority, modest, casual clothing that is familiar and nondistracting to children. Police officers should not werar uniforms or have guns visible
How should interviewers act
relaxed and patient demeanor, during early interview phases they should adopt nonverbal behaviors associated with positivity like smiling, leaning forward, nodding, and showing interest, without a threatening amount of eye contact. Observe child’s reaction and adjust accordingly. Give children adequate time to talk and deliver still-your-turn feedback
how should interviewers address the child’s terminology
do not guide the child’s terminology
what are the stages of the interview
1) introduction/rapport building 2) substantive phase/topic of concern 3) closure
what are the parts of the introduction/rapport building phase
introduce self and setting, instructions/ground rules, narrative practice
what is the purpose of the intro/rapport building phase
to establish a working relationship with the child and to provide a foundation for the interview process
how should you introduce yourself
give name, say you’re someone that talks to children about things that have happened to them, my job is to listen and ask questions because I don’t know the child’s experiences
how should you introduce setting
explain parts of room including that the interviewer is recording in case they forget something the child says. only people with special permission can view the tapes
what is the purpose of the instructions/ground rules phase
improve child’s testimony by explaining certain things like interviewers naive to situation, want children to share only accurate info, etc
What ground rules should the interviewer give
don’t guess, tell me when you don’t understand, tell me if I say something wrong, tell the truth, I don’t know what happened
What increases honesty in a child’s testimony
asking the child to promise to tell the truth
T/F: truth-lie competency tasks increase honesty
false
What is the purpose of narrative practice
allow the child to practice being an informant (not a usual convo style for them), allow the interviewer to practice asking developmentally appropriate questions and understand the child’s linguistic ability and style, encourage rapport
T/F: narrative practice enhances children’s informative responses to open-ended prompts in the substantive phase
true
What kind of event should children talk about during narrative practice
specific (not gist memory), topic not related to abuse
what prompts should an interviewer use during narrative practice
open prompts, tell child to describe topic from beginning to end and not leave anything out, used cued open-ended questions that incorporate child’s own words/phrases, can cue to tell more about a specific object, person, detail, etc.
What is the purpose of the substantive phase
provide child the opportunity to talk about the experience of interest, gather info about the alleged/suspected abuse in a way that promotes accuracy and completeness
What transition should you start with during topic raising
the least specific, most benign transition
what are the components of the substantive phase
topic raising, elicit free narrative, questioning and clarifying, test alternative hypotheses
What should interviewers not mention in the topic raising phase
encourage children to mention key info including names of suspects and nature of events before interviewers do
what are some examples of good topic raising questions
How come you’re here today? Do you know why you’re here today? I heard you talked to Ms. Ruth about something that happened at school. Tell me what happened or about what you told Ms. Ruth. I see you have a bruise on your face. Tell me how that happened
What kind of prompts should we use when eliciting a free narrative
open prompts to promote free recall memory (tell me what happened, what happened next, tell more more about the part where [child’s words])
T/F: interviewers should give children time to think and use minimal encouragers when eliciting free narrative
true
T/F: free recall is more likely to be accurate than recognition memory
true
Why do we need to use more specific question types after free narratives
although they provide the most accurate info, free recall tend to be brief, so interviewers need to probe for more detail
what kind of recall-detailed questions are the least suggestive
wh- questions
what wh- question should be avoided
why questions. they can sound accusatory and they require advanced cognitive and linguistic maneuvers
How should interviewers handle the timing of recognition prompts and option-posing questions
they should delay them for as long as possible because they are more suggestive
T/F: interviewers should keep circling back to open prompts
true
what are some examples of suggestive interviewing techniques
leading questions, introducing info children have not offered, stereotype induction, selective feedback/reinforcement, repeated questions
What should interviewers keep in mind about children during the substantive phase
the child’s development and memory abilities and limitations
What is the purpose of testing alternative hypotheses
to minimize the likelihood of confirmation bias (skepticism is so important), increase the likelihood of gathering accurate info, encourage detail gathering, and improve ability to defend the case in court
what needs to be considered when testing alternative hypotheses
other possible reasons or explanations for the child’s statements (misunderstanding, accidental injury, distinguish abuse from caregiving activities like bathing)
What needs to be clarified when testing alternative hypotheses
ambiguities and inconsistencies
What is the purpose of the closure stage
To bring a respectful end to a conversation that many have been emotionally challenging for the child
What should you ask during the closure stage
if there is anything else the interviewer needs to know or anything the child needs to tell the interviewer. ask if the child has any questions
What does the interviewer need to keep in mind when children ask the questions during the closure phase
We cannot answer most questions, like whether they will be removed from the home or if anyone will get in trouble. We should not make false promises
Besides questions, what other things should we talk about during closure
body safety, who children can talk to, provide contact name and number in case they want to discuss something further, talk about a neutral topic to defuse tension and bring kid back to a more neutral state
T/F: the closure process is based on the individual child’s needs
true
What are protocols
an outlined plan for the interview, tell you step by step with some flexibility. forensic interviewing training programs develop protocols. Most of the time protocols incorporate best practices.
What are best practices
techniques or procedures that have been found to be effective in eliciting info from children. Best practices have to be agreed upon by clinicians and researchers
T/F: all protocols incorporate only good practice
false. most protocols incorporate best practice, but they may also include things that are not best practice (like diagrams and dolls)
T/F: the use of dolls and diagrams are considered best practice
false. there is a lack of consensus among researchers and clinicians regarding dolls and diagrams
What does the child first protocol say about using dolls and diagrams
use them only after a disclosure, in age appropriate ways, and when certain elements are ambiguous
What skills do young children usually lack that are needed to use dolls and diagrams
dual representation (ability to understand that dolls are objects, but also representations of their own bodies), the ability to accurately map memories of experienced bodily touch on the dolls when prompted by interviewers, and the ability to mentally sustain a doll’s symbolic and and demonstrative purpose and not drift off into unrelated behaviors
What are the three main recommendations for using dolls to question children
1) exploratory behaviors should not be use in a diagnostic fashion 2) dolls are only used to clarify disclosures, not elicit them 3) interviewers should encourage kids to explain in their own words what they are demonstrating
T/F: interviewers use diagrams more than dolls
true
T/F: diagrams are less risky than dolls
false
Why do supporters of diagrams believe they are better than dolls
diagrams are less reliant on dual representation and they make less affordances for play and exploratory behaviors
T/F: diagrams still do elicit errors and can be misinterpreted
true
T/F: even though many interviewers use diagrams in the predisclosure phase and to help obtain disclosures, this is very problematic
true
what did the sticker study show
Even though diagrams rely less on dual representation, young children still had a hard time mapping touch from their bodies to a diagram
What did the medical study find about using diagrams
although body diagrams elicited more reports of actual experienced touch, they also generated way too many false reports
Why are diagrams so risky in general
even though they give us more details and more disclosures, the high rate of false disclosures make it too risky to use
What can happen when diagrams are used in the beginning of the interview to go over anatomy
there is a risk of influencing the direction of the conversation with the child (touches are primed when interviewer and child talk about labeling body parts in the beginning of interview, and those parts are more likely to show up later in interview when using diagram)
What is a specific interviewer risk regarding diagrams and dolls
Interviewers may over-rely on diagrams when diagram use is routine or because of habit or lack of training and consideration of other approaches
What magnifies the risk of using diagrams
combining with option-posing, yes/no, and leading questions
What is an exuberant reporter?
a sizable minority of children who thoughtlessly point to diagrams and make a lot of false disclosures, often with explanations of touch
What deficit do many exuberant reporters have
cognitive deficits in their frontal lobe
How do dolls and diagrams affect a child’s narrative?
they limit verbal communication and don’t elicit a narrative
T/F: verbal prompts alone often elicit the same amount of information as dolls or diagrams
true
T/F: each child should be treated the same when it comes to emotional/clinical needs
false. each child should be dealt with differently based on individual needs
T/F: the clinical role is separate from the forensic role
true
What is the forensic role
to gather accurate information from a neutral stance
What is the clinical role
to determine if the child has a psychological disorder or symptoms, devise a treatment plan, and help reduce the child’s symptoms
How many interview or testimonies might a child have to go through
9
What are some factors we need to consider when determining a child’s needs?
circumstances surrounding the allegation, other traumatic external events, life changes following the report such as loss of parent(s), loss of contact with extended family, or change of school, and the current placement of the child
What internal factors affect how trauma impacts a child?
resiliency and personal interpretation of the abuse event
What are some external factors that affect how trauma impacts a child
degree of family stability and paren’t response following disclosure
What are some characteristics of abuse that affect how trauma impacts a child
timing, duration, frequency, severity, degree of threat, and relationship to the perpetrator
What children are more vulnerable to psychological problems following abuse
those that were abused by their parents or caretakers, children that experience multiple types of abuse, children that experience abuse and neglect, and abuse with exposure to intimate partner violence
Is abuse specific therapy recommended from a legal perspective? Why or why not
Abuse specific therapy is dangerous from a legal perspective because it can taint child’s memory and stand in the way of successful prosecution of a criminal case
What should we wait for before starting abuse specific therapy
It should not be used until abuse status can be legally determined
What kind of therapy can we provide for children experiencing behavioral or emotional problems when their abuse status has not been determined yet?
therapy that provides general support, helps build pro-social relationships, strengthens coping mechanisms, and decreases symptomatic behavior (I also think you can address other traumas like violence in the home/community, etc)
What is allegation-facilitated therapy
Not actually therapy. An extended interview when a child has not confirmed maltreatment, to give them more time to talk about it
What are best practices for allegation-facilitated therapy?
4 sessions at most, as close together as possible to reduce contamination, always video recorded
What is usually a better alternative to allegation-facilitated therapy
due to the risks of allegation-facilitated therapy, it is often better to use a court appointed comprehensive evaluation
What should we do when a case will take a really long time, but a child’s emotional/clinical needs are urgent?
For any case that could be long alleged victims should be provided comprehensive forensic evaluations with videotaped interviews. If treatment needs are urgent, provide abuse-specific therapy even though such interventions could compromise the judicial process
What is child sexual abuse accommodation syndrome (CSAAS)
an idea put forward by Roland Summit about how children experience abuse and how the dynamic between them and the abuser, who is often a family member or friend, affects how they perceive abuse and how they disclose it
Why can’t we fully trust CSAAS’ accuracy
This came from women’s experience remembering during the repressed memory era. So, it probably does not generalize to the large and varied pool of abused children. More importantly, clinical experiences are not science. Some of his proposals are backed by science and others are not
Why do expert witnesses use CSAAS in court? What is potentially wrong with that?
they use it to explain why children might delay, deny , or recant abuse and to rehabilitate the child’s credibility. However this is biased an often an overreach to explain child’s potential abuse
delayed disclosure statistics
delayed disclosure (> 6mos) is common. 2/3 of abused children delay disclosure, sometimes until adulthood, and many never tell. For the 1/3 that do tell, few cases ever come to the attention of authorities
reasons for delayed disclosure
shame, fear (of consequences, getting in trouble, that the abuser might get in trouble, reaction of non-abusing caregiver, not wanting to hurt family), their relationship with abuser, pressure in the interview, and because they can tell the non-abusing caregiver might not be supportive. Some kids don’t realize they are being abused. Some older children don’t see it as abuse because they believe they are in a consensual relationship
denial facts
most kids will not deny when asked directly. in a highly probable abuse group most children disclosed. in an overturned or very unlikely group, most children did not disclose. Therefore, because the majority of children who are suspected victims of abuse do not deny it, it’s not necessary to use highly suggestive techniques to get them to disclose
recantation statistics
recantation is very rare
what do you need to look at when a child recants
whether they have a non-supportive caregiver that may threaten the child, possibility that the child will be removed from the home, pressure from the perpetrator, or if the original interview was done poorly or the interviewer misinterpreted the disclosure
