Final exam Flashcards
chapter 6 -
Youth Criminal Justice Act, 2003
placed greater emphasis on DIVERSION and REHABILITATION. REDUCE use of custody as sanction for youth. Use of custody has DECLINED since implementation
Adolescents tend to focus more on ______ than _____ & more on _____ than _____ term consequences
Adolescents tend to focus more on BENEFITS than COSTS & more on SHORT- than LONG-term consequences
cognitive load theory
the amount of MENTAL EFFORT required by a task, and more specifically, the extent to which the task uses WORKING MEMORY resources
post-employment screening
DIRECT involvement of police psychologists. Conduct evaluations with candidates
T/F: police can continue to interview EVEN IF right to silence is invoked
TRUE.
what are some sources of error?
1) fill in the blanks
2) change details that are inconsistent with expectations
3) repeated reports of the same event
which part of the brain has to do with vivid memories?
amygdala-based processing
operational psychology
Aims to “generate empirical knowledge on individual & contextual factors influencing human behaviour in dynamic settings that produce a hazard to life, health, or basic values”
when could confidence be helpful?
only IF:
- ratings taken immediately after identification.
- only confidence ratings of choosers, NOT confidence ratings of non-choosers
CH.6 SA: A biased interviewer may draw false conclusions from their interview with a child. What
mechanisms have been identified that could account for this effect? (3 points)
1) A biased interviewer is more likely to ask suggestive questions.
2) A biased interviewer is more likely to behave in ways (e.g., nod, smile, move closer) that
encourage a child to say things that are consistent with the interviewer’s hypothesis.
3) A biased interviewer is more likely to accept and to remember the parts of the child’s
report that are consistent with the interviewer’s hypothesis.
in Operations-Related Education & Training for the Operations domain, what is the goal?
Focus on improving police decision making - good use of discretion
CH.6 SA: Define closed prompts
Prompts, or questions, that constrain the possible responses (“who was
driving the car?” or “was it Tuesday or Wednesday?”).
examples of police trickery
- Pretending to be a chaplain or legal aid lawyer
- Pretending to turn off tape recorder when taking statement
May youth be transferred to adult court?
NO! BUT adult sentences MAY be applied.
for simulation-based training, what is the most common training method?
computer-based simulators
guess the type of interview: research shows that up to 35% more correct info is attained when police use this interview compared to standard police interviews. However there is a SMALL increase in incorrect info
Enhanced Cognitive Interview
misinformation acceptance
participants respond in a way that they think the questioner wants them to respond
what is the common training method for simulation based training?
computer-based simulators
situational awareness
Develop an appreciation for immediate physical environment
CH.6 SA: What are the two factors (in Psychology) that comprise overall credibility? (2 points)
Perceived honesty and perceived cognitive competence
CH.6 SA: Define suggestibility
The degree to which encoding, storage, retrieval, and reporting of
events can be influenced by a range of social and psychological factors
Jury Selection: Representativeness
- All members of the parent population have an equal chance of being selected
- The sample is a random selection
- The sample is large enough
what case is associated with atmosphere of oppression
R. v. Hoillett (1999)
_____ defendants more likely to waive rights than ____ defendants
Young defendants more likely to waive rights than older defendants
fitness for duty evaluations
when psychologists may conduct psychological evaluations of OFFICERS whose behaviours interfere with their ability to function effectively
Adolescents tend to focus more on ______ than _____ & more on _____ than _____ term consequences
Adolescents tend to focus more on BENEFITS than COSTS & more on SHORT- than LONG-term consequences
by the 1700’s there was a creation of police forces to address increased crime that coincided with
urbanization
what are the two components to a childs credibility?
1) perceived honesty: carried more weight if familiar context. Younger children likely perceived as more credible
2) perceived cognitive competence: carries more weight if unfamiliar context. younger children likely perceived as less credible
testimonial supports ____ child’s stress, ______ child’s accuracy and ____ have adverse effects on accused
testimonial supports DECREASE child’s stress, INCREASE child’s accuracy and DON’T have adverse effects on accused
for adolescents, where does fitness restoration occur?
in community
give the ratio for males and females in regards to life-course persistent offenders
males - 10:1
females - 100:1
In the 1700’s why was the creation of police forces made?
to address the increased crime that coincided with urbanization
CH.6 SA: Describe the results from the Thompson et al (1997) study (i.e., the janitor study). You do
not need to describe the methods. (6 points)
In response to open-ended questions, children in the neutral (1) and exculpatory interview (1) were very correct; by the 4th interview children in the incriminating condition were very incorrect (1). In response to the interpretive questions, children in the neutral (1) and exculpatory (1)
conditions were very accurate, in the incriminating condition, children rated almost all of the
actions as playing rather than cleaning (1)
Incomplete development of this ability may explain risk-taking and sensation-seeking behaviors in adolescents
temperance
what do police psychologists help with?
1) hiring the best possible officers
2) give the best possible education and training
3) support police to do the best job possible
Characteristics of a good interview with a child
1) setting
2) non-contingent support
3) practice interview
4) set the ground rules
5) remain objective and neutral
6) avoid suggestive questioning
7) use appropriate question format
8) close well
Police Psychology
delivery of psychological services TO and on BEHALF of law enforcement agencies, their executives, and employees
ALT key study - Kassin & Kiechel (1996)
Undergraduates recruited for reaction time study. Told to press keys on keyboard but NOT to touch the ALT key. 60 seconds into study, the system crashed & they were told that they had hit the ALT key.
trier of fact
decides questions of fact (e.g., is accused the perpetrator
PEACE technique
Preparation & planning Engage & Explain Account Closure Evaluate
Elicits same number of true confessions as Reid Technique
BUT reduces number of false confessions
Hope & Wrights experiments with viewing slide show of man entering grocery store with object
man removes gun (threatening and unusual), feather duster (non-threatening and unusual) or wallet (control) from pocket.
RT was slower in both the weapon and feather duster condition relative to the
control condition.(1)
o Accuracy scores were similar in the weapon and feather duster conditions (59% and 70%, respectively) and they were lower than in the weapon condition than in the control condition, 82% accuracy. (1) Unusualness may explain some of the weapon focus effect, but not all of it. (1)
Characteristics of a good interview with a child: set the ground rules
promise to tell the truth, report everything, empower the child by letting them know that they can ask for clarification, they can say if they dont know or they dont remember, and to correct the interviewed when appropriate
voluntary confession: fear of prejudice
threats of mistreatment, denial of bail, and denial of access to friends
pre-employment screening
Police psychologists INDIRECTLY involved.
Develop, evaluate, supervise applicant screening procedures
In their creative 1996 study, Kassin and Keichel used the ALT key experimental
paradigm to investigate the phenomenon of false confessions in a laboratory setting. Describe the method and findings from this study. (13 points)
• Their experimental paradigm involved bringing participants into a lab ostensibly for a reaction time study. (1)
• The participants were instructed to type letters on a keyboard but to avoid hitting the ALT key, as that would crash the computer and all the data would be lost. (1) Although no one actually hit the ALT key, the computer crashed after 60 seconds. (1)
• Vulnerability was simulated by reading the letters at a slow or a fast pace (43 versus
67 letters per minute), (1) and the confederate for half of the participants said she saw the participant hit the ALT key. (1)
• Once the computer crashed, the experimenter appeared upset and accused the participant of crashing the computer. (1) All participants initially denied the accusation. (1) All participants were questioned further and asked to sign a confession.
(1)
• The researchers reported that most of the participants signed the confession, (1) many internalized guilt (1) (they believed they had pressed the ALT key), and a few confabulated details (1) to support their false beliefs.
• Both vulnerability and the presence of a witness affected these data such that more vulnerable participants were more likely to confess (1) as were participants who were
told a witness saw them do it (1)
ways to reduce false confessions
1) innocence project: VIDEOTAPE entire interrogation
2) police should NOT provide suspect with details about crime
3) evaluate suspects POST-ADMISSION NARRATIVE to determine the extent to which the details in their statement is CONSISTENT with well known facts of the case
4) allow EXPERT TESTIMONY on false confessions in court
simulation-based training
type of police training provides the opportunity to practice DECISION MAKING and use of force under controlled circumstances that closely resemble situations they are likely to encounter in the course of their employment
In the assessment domain, what is job analysis?
it is the process of identifying relevant knowledge, skills, and abilities and other personal characteristics (KSAO’s) required for various positions in law enforcement
factors that increase confidence, but NOT accuracy
1) time
2) frequency of interviews
3) post identification feedback
misinformation: Loftus studies
Participants view slide show of car going through stop sign/yield sign. Later told it was a yield sign/stop sign. Sizeable minority of participants subsequently reported that is was a yield sign/stop sign.
selecting a jury: provincial law
makes rules for juror ELIGIBILITY and gather panel
what are the possible consequences of transferring to adult court/prison at TRIAL?
1) higher rate of conviction
2) longer sentence
the two variables that affect eyewitness variables
1) estimator variables
2) system variables
early history of policing in Canada can be traced back to
colonial days in France and England
Easterbrook hypothesis
arousal increases attention to most salient elements of event. memory for central details of negative event is superior
what do police psychologists DO in a job analysis?
1) survey officers/supervisors about important KSAO’s
2) ask to describe prototypical “successful” officers
3) observe officers on the job
CH.7 SA: According to Moffitt (1993, 2003) and others, what are the major patterns of juvenile
delinquency observed? Identify and briefly describe each. (14 points)
Life-course persistent offenders,(1) have conduct problems that begin in early childhood. (1) The childhood predictors are undercontrolled temperament and delayed motor development by age 3, low verbal ability, attention deficit and hyperactivity problems, and neuropsychological impairments (3 points for any three of these factors). These children may engage in bullying behaviour in elementary school and have difficulties in interpersonal peer relations.(1) These individuals are at higher risk for later delinquent
and adult criminal behaviour. (1) Fortunately, this group of offenders accounts for the small proportion of delinquent offenders, as they account for less than 10% of all
delinquents. (1)
• Adolescent-limited offenders, (1) don’t begin offending until their teen years, (1) and they typically do not have the early childhood antisocial and behavioural problems seen in life course persistent offenders.(1) Delinquent behaviour is normative for adolescent-limited offenders, as a way of establishing autonomy from parents and to gain acceptance from peers. (1) They are heavily influenced by peers when engaging in delinquent behavior. (1). Adolescent-limited offending is by far the most common type of offending (1)
what does the criminal code say about children testifying?
1) any person under the age of 18 SHALL testify with testimonial supports IF requested.
2) any person who was under the age of 18 at the TIME OF THE OFFENCE and whose statement was taken shortly after the alleged offence SHALL have the videotaped testimony admitted if requested
Reisberg & Heuer say that narrowing of attention may not be due entirely to
emotional arousal
source misattribution
participants recall both experienced detail & suggested detail but can’t remember how each detail was learned
voluntary false confession
a person voluntarily confesses KNOWING they are innocent
confirmatory bias
when test administrator inadvertently expresses his/her opinion. (subtle body language, re-administer the identification test). This has clear effect on a witnesses selection.
During a routine police interview with a witness to a crime, the person blurted out
that they had committed the crime. Later, the police uncovered additional evidence
that the “witness” was the culprit and arrested him. At trial, the accused applied to
have the confession inadmissible because he was not told that he had the right to
remain silent and the right to an attorney. Why will he probably not succeed in his
application? (1 point)
A warning only has to be given to a person who is arrested or detained, not to
a witness. At the time of the confession, he was a witness
absolute judgement (sequential presentation)
Each member of the line-up is compared to the witness’s memory
Enhanced Cognitive Interview relies on 2 principles
1) feature overlap
2) multiple retrieval paths
in the Youth Criminal Justice Act, 2003, what were the options for offences?
minor offence = extrajudicial measures. If extrajudicial measures not appropriate and accused confesses = extrajudicial sanctions. If extrajudicial measures/sanctions not appropriate = arrest
sometimes leading questions is necessary in interviewing. What should you avoid?
1) repeating them
2) high-status interviewer asking them
3) asking in an emotionally intimidating/coercive way
4) asking about peripheral details
5) asking in developmentally inappropriate language
6) very leading q’s
mock jurors seem unable to disregard confession evidence. why?
fundamental attribution error - WHO would confess to a crime they did not commit!
examples of estimator variables
length of time witness viewed perpetrator, lighting conditions, witness intoxication
juries rarely used in
civil trials in Canada
purpose of the Jury
1) representative of community
2) conscience of the community
3) prevent oppressive power
4) public knowledge
5) public involvement
6) public confidence
in the 1980’s there was a dramatic increase in children in the courts system. why?
1) a wider admissibility of expert psychological testimony on issues of eyewitness accuracy
2) the sociopolitical zeitgeist of the late 1960’s that encouraged social scientists to focus more on the application of their research
3) the “sudden” awareness of the prevalence of crimes against children
4) the changes in law that made it possible for children to be witnesses in criminal court
Given that youth often waive their arrest rights and are particularly vulnerable to
false confessions, what was recommended to protect the rights of youth? (2 points)
Require the presence of an adult before a youth can waive their arrest rights (1
point). It may not be in the youth’s best interest to have this person be their parent. Parents may pressure their child to cooperate with the police, to waive their rights and to
“tell the truth.” (1 point)
What conditions must be present for a person to validly waive their s. 10(b) rights?
(2)
A person may waive their s. 10(b) rights if they clearly understand the right (1) and
the consequences of waiving it.(1)
AFTER s.10(b) of rights are read, what can the defendant do?
1) May waive right (must understand right & consequences of waiving it)
2) May choose to talk to police
3) Police may continue to interrogate without counsel being present
voluntary oppression: operating mind
the assumption of an individual having an operating mind.
ex. shock from recent accident or intoxication.
what should be the objective of a forensic interview with a child suspected of being maltreated
1) to identify the occurrence of child maltreatment
2) to identify when an allegation or suspicion of maltreatment is FALSE
step eight of Reid Technique
HAVE SUSPECT DESCRIBE DETAILS OF OFFENCE
- the interrogator should be alone
- later, have someone else witness the confession
what is the purpose of testimonial supports?
1) to reduce the stress associated with testifying
2) to allow the witness to provide a “full and candid” account of the alleged offence
approach to criminal profiling: inductive analytic technique
comparative, statistical, nomothetic in nature
Infer perpetrator’s characteristics from knowledge of general patterns of criminal behavior, reflected in scientific theory & research
life-course persistent offenders represent about ___ of juvenile offenders
10%
CCTV or life: testimony via ____ may actually REDUCE chances of conviction
testimony via CCTV may actually REDUCE chances of conviction
can the culprit and suspect be the same person?
maybe, but not always
When following up with victims of cases involving abuse/neglect, what was found?
abuse/neglect was associated with a 55% INCREASE in likelihood that child would be arrested as a juvenile and 96% increase in likelihood of juvenile committing a VIOLENT offence. Earlier engagement in juvenile activity, higher rates of recidivism, and higher rates of crime in adulthood
How could you test the fairness of a police line-up and what results would you
expect if the line-up was fair? (3 points)
- give a person who was not a witness to the crime a description of the perpetrator
and then present the line-up (2 points) - if the line-up is unbiased, the suspect should be selected at chance levels only (1
point)
why must one remain cautious during an applicant screening?
1) the predictive validity of assessment procedures is LIMITED
2) intensive screening procedures are difficult and expensive to implement
3) important to consider issues of fairness and acceptability
what did policing shift away from and move towards in the 1960’s-1980’s?
shift away from REACTIVE, INCIDENT-ORIENTED policing and towards COMMUNITY and PROBLEM-ORIENTED policing
incorrect identification more likely in target-absent line-up IF
simultaneous presentation used than if sequential presentation used
what is retrieval of information influenced by?
1) quality/type of interview
2) bias
3) reminiscence
recent complaint doctrine
a law that was in force until 1983 that said if you didn’t report your sexual assault at the first available opportunity, the trier of fact was REQUIRED to assume tat the complainant was not credible or had CONSENTED to having sex
BEFORE 1300’s, where was juvenile justice at?
ALL persons were subject to the same standards and liability
what are the possible AFTERMATH consequences of transferring to prison?
1) higher recidivism
2) more serious recidivism
EARL-20G
Early Assessment Risk List for Girls
Juries only used in about __% of criminal trials in Canada
10%
Incomplete development of this ability may explain risk-taking and sensation-seeking behaviors in adolescents
temperance
step nine of Reid Technique
CONVERT ORAL CONFESSION TO WRITTEN/TAPED CONFESSION
- to complete things if the suspect decides to RETRACT, DENY, OR WITHDRAW the confession
until 1988, there was a requirement that there must be judicial warning with unsworn child witnesses. explain.
courts must be warned of the dangers of convicting on the uncorroborated evidence of an unsworn child and that if there wasn’t any other independent piece of evidence to prove this, there would be an acquittal
primary intervention
BEFORE problems exist and are targeted to the GENERAL population.
ex. dont drink when you’re pregnant, no bullying, help prepare kids for school
Child Advocacy Centres
the Federal Government has recently committed a substantial amount of money to develop this. These centres offer a variety of services such as law enforcement, child protection, prosecution, mental health, advocacy, forensic interviewing, and medical evaluations with the goal of reducing the trauma experienced by children victims and witnesses.
Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY): social/contextual factors
peer delinquency, stress and poor coping
In a study where there was a 15 year delay between abuse/neglect and follow up, what was found?
youth with a history of abuse/neglect were 4.8x more likely to have been arrested for ANY juvenile offence and 11x more likely to have been arrested for a VIOLENT crime
memory impairment
misinformation impairs participants’ ability to remember the experienced details
Enhanced Cognitive Interview: feature overlap (aka encoding specificity)
Effective memory retrieval is associated with degree of similarity between encoding context & retrieval context (aka: encoding specificity)
applicant screening
process of evaluating applicants to ensure they have the minimum KSAOs required for their jobs
_____ defendants more likely to waive rights than ____ defendants
Young defendants more likely to waive rights than older defendants
what is the recommendation for number of foils in line ups in the US and then in CANADA?
US = AT LEAST 5
CANADA = 9
CH.6 SA: In research on the efficacy of the Truth/Lie competency inquiry with children there are two
primary paradigms. Describe the 2 paradigms (6 points)
In temptation studies, children play with a toy that includes hidden or secret parts (1).
Sometime during the game the experimenter is called out of the room and the child is
asked not to “peek” or play until the experimenter returns and the game resumes (1).
When the experimenter returns the child is asked if he/she peeked (1)(across experiments,
a substantial majority of children peek/play).
• In a transgression paradigm the child is in a room with another adult and observes the adult break something (1). The adult tells the child that he/she might get into trouble and so the child should not tell anyone what happened (1). The experimenter returns and asks the child what happened. (1)
cognitive load theory: intrinsic cognitive load
reflects inherent complexity of info trainees learn
CH.6 SA: List and discuss the advantages of beginning a forensic interview with a child with a
practice interview. (5 points)
First, it helps to build rapport (1). Second, it gives the interviewer a chance to observe the child’s linguistic competence (1). This is important because it will allow the interviewer to know if there is a language shift when the child talks about the alleged abuse and to investigate reasons for the shift (i.e., does the child revert to “baby language” or use
language that is too mature-sounding) (1). Third, it lets children know how they will be
interviewed during the substantive portion of the interview and how much information the interviewer wants to hear. (1) Finally, it gives the child an opportunity to practice responding to open-ended questions about past events (1).
Characteristics of a good interview with a child: use appropriate question format
open ended prompts. leave open ended prompts instead of direct questions. may require more focused questions to gather additional info but begin with wh- questions and focus on the info ALREADY disclosed by child
what is a voluntary confession?
1) without fear or prejudice or hope of advantage
2) Operating mind
3) not extracted in an atmosphere of oppression
4) no police trickery that shocks the conscience of the community
Generally, a violation cannot be retroactively justified—finding incriminating evidence cannot be used to justify the violation
But, the evidence may still be admitted under…
s. 24(2).
Peremptory challenge:
dismissing a person without reason
what does the Reid Technique begin with?
non-accusatorial interview, THENNNNNN interrogation begins
what was the objective for policing in the 1700’s?
detect and investigate crime
CCTV or live: mock jurors are more likely to convict accused in ____ condition than ____ condition.
mock jurors are more likely to convict accused in LIVE condition than CCTV condition.
arousal
recall central details of arousing events better than neutral events
how is a childs competence tested?
truth-lie discussion: child asked questions about concepts of truth, lies and promises
Youth risk instruments
1) Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument (MAYSI-2)
2) EARL-20B and EARL-20G
3) Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY)
If the adult sentence is applied to a youth offender, what are their rights?
they have a right to PRELIMINARY INQUIRY and TRIAL BY JURY
what are the possible consequences of transferring to adult PRISON?
1) suicide
2) sexual victimization
what was the results of the Sam Stone study?
the older they were, the more accurate their story was.
accuracy went like this
1) control
2) stereotype
3) suggestions
4) stereotype and suggestion
EARL-20B and EARL-20G measure
measures area of risk for children under 12:
1) family (e.g., stressors, parenting)
2) child (e.g., ADHD, peer socialization)
3) responsivity to interventions
childrens credibility
childs “worthiness of belief” (weight given to witness’ testimony)
what happens if a jury can not reach a unanimous decision?
it is a hung jury and the judge will declare a mistrial
CH. 8 SA: What are two (2) possible sources of errors in eyewitness evidence that can be attributable to the encoding stage? (2)
1) Selectively encode (selective attention)
2) Actively interpret the environment
investigative bias
Police belief that the suspect is lying can lead to inappropriate biases and behaviours
there should be nothing about the suspect that makes him/her
stand out from others in the line-up
CH. 8 SA: There are 5 principles of a good interview with a cooperative witness. Name the
principles (do not discuss the reasons for the principles) (5 points)
▪ begin the interview by developing rapport with the interviewee
▪ remain neutral and objective
▪ ask open-ended questions that become more structured only if necessary and only as
the interview progresses
▪ avoid the use of leading (or misleading) questions
▪ allow the interviewee to control the interview
Reid Technique minimization
REDUCE anxiety associated with CONFESSING
How can an instructor increase germane cognitive load? Report the strategy and why it increases germane cognitive load. (4 points)
- instructors can use a diverse set of examples or exercises (1) that helps trainees to
generalize their learning across situations (1)
-instructors can have trainees talk aloud while engaging in tasks (1) so they can concretize
and process the information they are acquiring (1)
unsworn child
a child who testifies on a promise to tell the truth rather than an oath or affirmation
hippocampus ——->
interferes with consolidation
life-course persistent offenders
1) Under-controlled temperament and delayed motor skills by age 3
2) Low verbal ability.
3) ADHD
4) Neuropsychological impairments
5) bullying/trouble with peer relations
6) represent about 10% of juvenile offenders
CH.6 SA: Landström & Granhag (2010) offered a vividness explanation for the finding that children are seen as less credible when using testimonial supports than when they testify live. Explain the theory (be precise) and describe some of the data used to support the theory.
(15 points)
A report that is temporally (1) and locationally (1) proximate is more vivid (1) than a
report that is more distant. The most proximal testimony is live (1). CCTV is
intermediate in proximity (1). Videotaped evidence is the least proximate (1). According
to this theory, as vividness increases so does credibility (1). Landstrom and Granhag
compared ratings of credibility of live testimony, CCTV, and videotaped testimony (1).
Consistent with the vividness hypothesis, the biggest difference in credibility ratings was
between the live and video conditions (1), the second biggest difference was between the
CCTV and video conditions (1), the smallest difference was between the live and CCTV
conditions (1). Vividness should also affect memorability, with more vivid reports being
remembered better than less vivid reports (1). Consistent with this, Landstrom et al.
(2007) found that mock jurors reported better memory (1) and actually had better
memory (1) for live testimony testimony than testimony presented on CCTV (1).
Gudjonsson has developed two psychological constructs relevant for the
understanding false confessions:
compliance and suggestibility
Senior Detective Smith is trying to make reforms in his police agency because he has
noticed a recent rise in false confessions. According to experts and research, what
recommendations would you suggest he can implement to improve police practices
in his precinct? (5 points)
• Mandatory video recording of entire interrogations. (1)
• Evaluate the suspect’s post-admission narrative to determine the extent to which the
details provided in the statement are consistent with known facts that have not been
revealed to the suspect during the interrogation. (1)
• use an interrogation approach that is non non-coercive and aimed at obtaining accurate
information from a suspect. (1) Interviewers are instructed to keep an open mind about the innocence or guilt of the suspect and to treat all suspects fairly.(1)
• Allow expert testimony about the research on false confessions. (1).
the two sources of law that affect police interactions with suspects and the use of incriminating evidence
1) the charter
2) common law (CL) rule on voluntariness
Germane cognitive load
reflects instructor efforts to help trainees develop relevant schemas, cognitive structures, or “mental maps” to organize new info into meaningful concepts
If the adult sentence is applied to a youth offender and the adult sentence is passed, what happens?
They serve in a youth facility until they turn 20 years old, then, they transfer to an adult facility
the two types of emotionality
1) arousal (physiological response)
2) stress (subjective interpretation)
secondary intervention
BEFORE the problem arises and targeted to HIGH-RISK groups
ex. school-based social skills training for boys with high levels of disruptive behaviour in kindergarten. DIVERSION programs for first time offenders to divert them out of juvenile justice system
_____ stress is associated with mental health problems in adulthood
anticipatory
children’s competence
whether child is allowed to testify in court (admissibility of witness testimony)
CH. 8 SA: Define and compare system variables and estimator variables. Provide examples of
each. (6 points)
• System variables affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (1) that the criminal
justice system has some control over (1). For example, the way a question is
worded or the way a lineup is constructed may impact the accuracy of eyewitness
identification. In these instances, the justice system has some control over these
variables. (1)
• Estimator variables, on the other hand, are those that may affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (1) but that the criminal justice system does not have any
control over. (1) For example, the amount of attention that an eyewitness paid to a perpetrator, how long an eyewitness viewed a perpetrator, or the lighting
conditions under which a perpetrator was viewed would be examples of estimator variables. (1)
what are the two sections of the charter that are most likely to be invoked to exclude disputed incriminating statements?
1) s. 10(b) - “Everyone has the right on arrest or detention to retain and instruct counsel without delay and to be informed of that right”
2) s. 7 - “Everyone has the right to life, liberty, and security of the person and the right not to be deprived thereof except in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice”
factors that affect eyewitness testimony: weapon focus event
Witness will remember less about crime & perpetrator when a weapon is used than when there is no weapon
In the 1700’s what was the police objective?
to detect and investigate crime
jury size
12 people.
target-absent line-up
suspect is NOT the culprit.
the correct decision is to REJECT all line-up members
what are some factors that can lead to childrens suggestibility?
leading questions, biases or pre-conceived notions of what happened. Children are more suggestible than adults
coerced-COMPLIANT false confession
a person confesses to AVOID punishment or OBTAIN advantage, knowing they are innocent
police psychology
“delivery of psychological services to & on behalf of law enforcement agencies, their executives, & employees”
Enhanced Cognitive Interview: multiple retrieval paths
Several retrieval paths to retrieval details of an encoded event
definition of Operational Psychology
aims to get empirical knowledge on individual and contextual factors influencing human behaviour in dynamic settings that produce a hazard to life, health, or basic values.
Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY)
measures risk for violence in 12 to 18 yo’s, specifically:
1) historical risk factors
2) social/contextual risk factors
3) individual/clinical risk factors
4) protective factors
Reid Technique: maximization
INCREASE anxiety associated with DENIALS
general principles for interviewing witnesses
1) develop RAPPORT at beginning of interview
2) remain NEUTRAL and OBJECTIVE
3) use OPEN-ENDED questions that become more structured ONLY IF necessary
4) avoid misleading questions
5) allow interviewee to control interview
estimator variables are variables that are ____ to the situation
estimator variables are variables that are INHERENT to the situation
what are attitudes towards children
they are unreliable witnesses
is there empirical support for the practice interview with children? if so, what is it?
yes there is empirical support for practice interviews.
1) open ended children provided 2.5x more info
2) open ended children provided more info throughout the interview
3) effect was larger for OLDER than younger kids
what are the two issues with eyewitness memory and identification
1) event memory
2) face identification
Characteristics of a good interview with a child: practice interview
child describes neutral past event. interviewer asks questions the same way they will ask q’s about alleged maltreatment. Objectives for practice interview are to build rapport with child, observe child’s linguistic competence, lets child know how they will be interviewed, practice with open questions
coerced-INTERNALIZED false confession
a person confesses and believes they are guilty notwithstanding their innocence
Prevalent disorders in youth
1) substance abuse
2) depression
3) ADHD
4) Anxiety disorders
*many youth have co-occurring disorders
(police psychology) operations domain: Operations-Related Education & Training:
help improve success of law enforcement in specific jobs or missions.
examples of system variables
the way the interview is conducted or the way the lineup is constructed
retrieval
the process of accessing previously stored info when you need it
arrest rights of youth
Youth must be informed that:
1) They have the right to silence
2) That any statement may be used as evidence against them
3) They have the right to counsel and a parent or other adult
4) These right must be explained in language appropriate to age
5) `Rights can be waived if court believes that youth was informed of rights & voluntarily waived them
Describe Saywitz and Moan-Harris’s study on 7 year olds using “i dont know” in interviews
group 1) 7 yo’s trained on using IDK response.
result: DECREASED commission errors and INCREASED omission errors
group 2) 7 yo’s trained on using IDK response AND when a substantive response is appropriate
result: DECREASED commission errors but had NO effect on omission errors
approach to criminal profiling: Investigative Psychology
Basic assumption: criminal behaviour can be understood like any other form of human behaviour.
Hallmarks:
- Incorporation of various psychological theories to guide analysis
- Central role of statistically-derived offender typologies
one about __ in 5 suspects exercise the rights to silence and counsel. why?
ONE in five.
- Police deemphasize arrest right warnings
- Innocent suspects want to show they have nothing to hide
- Guilty suspects want to appear cooperative
- Suspect might not fully understand they are waiving their rights
- Suspect might not comprehend their rights
cognitive load theory: germane cognitive load
reflects instructor efforts to help trainees develop relevant schemas, cognitive structures, or “MENTAL MAPS” to organize new info into meaningful concepts
which is better? simultaneous or sequential presentation?
SEQUENTIAL
Youth with higher gains in ______ _____ were less likely to be involved in antisocial behaviors as adults
psychosocial maturity
Today in Canada all children in court under the age of 14….
testify as UNSWORN WITNESSES in criminal court
the right to remain silent is a principle of
fundamental justice
Tertiary intervention
AFTER the problem arises and goal is to reduce recidivism
Why is it a good idea for an interviewer to develop rapport with the witness before beginning the substantive phase of the interview? (2 points)
A police interview is very stressful for most witnesses, it is important to try to
reduce this stress before the substantive portion of the interview begins (1)
• It is important that the witness take control of the interview. Rapport building is the first step in the process of transferring control of the interview to the witness (1)
how the charter affects police interactions with suspects and the use of incriminating evidence
1) fairness
2) onus is on the DEFENCE to prove a violation on a BALANCE OF PROBABILITIES
3) evidence MAY be excluded if it puts the administration of justice into disrepute
what are the 4 general domains of proficiency in police psychology?
1) assessment
2) intervention
3) operational
4) consulting
what are the factors more prevalent among adolescent female offenders
1) PTSD
2) abuse/neglect
3) sexual victimization
4) depression and suicide
the three concepts that related to training in cognitive load theory
1) intrinsic cognitive load
2) extraneous cognitive load
3) germane cognitive load
police psychology: assessment
development, implementation and evaluation of procedures for evaluating law enforcement APPLICANTS, OFFICERS, and ADMINISTRATORS
powers limited by jursidiction of governing body go by
specific geographical areas and certain activities/domains
voluntary confession: hope of advantage
offers of leniency (e.g., bail, counselling)
fitness for duty evaluations
Psychologists may conduct psychological evaluations of officers whose behaviour interferes with their ability to function effectively
If the adult sentence is applied to a youth offender and their rights are exercised to have preliminary inquiry and trial by jury, which kind of court are they going to?
SUPERIOR court. The superior court will be deemed to be youth court for purposes of trial
police psychology - operations: operations-related education and training
help improve success of law enforcement in specific jobs or missions. FOCUS: is on improving police decision making
rate of mental health problems in youth justice system is ____ than in the general population of youth
rate of mental health problems in youth justice system is HIGHER than in the general population of youth
LATE 1800’s where was juvenile justice at?
radical changes in attitudes about delinquent behaviour. WELFARE-BASED MODEL.
applicant screening
process of evaluating applicants to ensure they have the minimum KSAO’s required for their job
One of the assumptions made in the Reid Technique is that detectives can distinguish between truthful and untruthful suspects. What does psychological research examining this assumption tell us? (7 points)
• Psychological research suggests there is little support for the assumption that investigators can rely on verbal and nonverbal cues to make accurate judgments about whether a suspect is lying or telling the truth. (1)
• In one of the first studies on the ability to detect lying in interview situations. They
asked seven groups of participants to view videotaped interviews of 10 university-aged women. They were told that half of the women were lying when they responded to questions about a film they had seen. Participants were asked to rate whether each
woman was lying or telling the truth. (1 point for describing the method) Only one group, Secret Service agents, performed better than chance. (1 point for describing the result.
• Another study used videotapes of actual suspects (1), and found that police officers in England were able to detect truth or lies at a rate better than chance (65%), (1) with
more experienced officers performing better than less experienced ones (1).
• Overall, these studies conclude that investigators on the whole may not be accurate in judgments of guilt or truthfulness.(1)
all the Reid Technique steps
step one: direct positive confrontation
step two: theme development
step three: handling denials
step four: overcoming objections
step five: procurement and retention of suspect’s attention
step six: handling suspects passive mood
step seven: alternative questions
step eight: have suspect describe details of offence
step nine: convert oral confession to written/taped confession
________ may be more predictive of offending behaviour and which part of the brain controls this?
Temperance may be more predictive of offending behaviour
frontal lobe
how the CL rules on voluntariness affect police interactions with suspects and the use of incriminating evidence
1) reliability
2) onus is on the CROWN
3) prove it is VOLUNTARY BEYOND A REASONABLE DOUBT
4) evidence MUST BE excluded if the incriminating statement was not voluntary
system variables are variables that are
system variables are variables that are BUILT IN TO THE SYSTEM
estimator variables estimate the
MAGNITUDE OF THE EFFECT
in the 1960’s to 1980’s, police took a shift away from ____, ____-oriented policing
in the 1960’s to 1980’s, police took a shift away from REACTIVE, INCIDENT-oriented policing
police must work more closely with public. Mobilize and cooperate with other community agencies. Help to precent crime by taking steps to address its root causes
Police psychologists performing job analysis may
- Survey officers/supervisors about important KSAOs
- Ask to describe prototypical “successful” officers
- Observe officers on the job
culprit
person who committed offence
Discuss why should we be cautious about the usefulness of criminal profiling?
• It is used rarely (1), in part because the identity of the offender is often know (1) and partly because police have a host of other investigative techniques that will be used before turning to criminal profiling (1).
• Second, an inaccurate profile may mislead investigators (1). Investigators who rely on a
criminal profile may miss important avenues of investigation (1) or focus too much on one suspect, which could be viewed as harassment.(1)
• Third, it is difficult to ensure that criminal profilers are adequately trained and using accepted methods. (1)
• Fourth, profiles can be vague and difficult to verify (1) making reliability and validity difficult to measure(1)
psychosocial maturity
1) responsibility - the ability to make autonomous choices, free of external influences
2) temperance - the ability to control impulses and exercise self-restraint
3) perspective - ability to see short and long term consequences. See how one’s behaviour affects others. Weight the costs and benefits of a course of action
applicant screening: police psychologists role in PRE-employment screening
police psychologists are INDIRECTLY involved. They develop, evaluate and supervise applicant screening procedures
encoding
process of information coming into our memory system
MID 1980’S, where was juvenile justice at?
attitudes were changing AGAIN. Youth violence is changing QUALITATIVELY as it is seen more dangerous and the need to hold them accountable. More youth being transferred to adult courts. New “get-tough-on-youth-crime” laws
voluntary confession: quid pro quo
you confess AND THEN you will receive a benefit
you confess OR ELSE something bad will happen
fundamental attribution error
the OVERemphasis of personality-based explanations for an individuals behaviour while MINImizing situational or external causes
CH. 8 SA: Why has it been said that memory for an event is incomplete and perhaps even biased from the beginning (i.e., at encoding)? (3 points)
• When we encounter a situation we selectively attend to (encode) a subset of stimuli in the environment (1).
• We don’t passively encode stimuli in the environment, we actively interpret our
experiences.(1) Often, expectations that are formed long before an event occurs predispose us to interpret stimuli in certain ways. (1)
how many suspects should be in a lineup and why?
ONLY ONE.
false identifications occur. With only ONE suspect, the police are more likely to identify a FALSE POSITIVE
1960’s and 1970’s there was an increasing representation of ____ and _____
women and ethnic/racial minorities
criminal profiling
Attempts to identify characteristics of unknown criminal perpetrators based on analysis of offence-related behaviours
step two of Reid Technique
THEME DEVELOPMENT
-gain trust of suspect
Police forces or law enforcement agencies
bureaucracies created by governing bodies to maintain public order & safety by ensuring compliance with laws
sequential line-ups REDUCE
choosing in both target-present and target-absent line-ups
according to Inabu and colleagues, innocent suspects’ denials are more…
SPONTANEOUS, FORCEFUL, and DIRECT
Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY): protective factors
strong social support, strong commitment to school
Extraneous cognitive load
unnecessary demands placed on trainee processing resources due to learning materials/instructional methods
system variables can be altered to
improve the accuracy of eyewitness identification
characteristics of use of force decisions
- Involves use of skills under difficult conditions
- Involves moral reasoning & considering institutional values
- Involves need to work closely with team members
explain video game to shoot man with gun but not man with harmless object
object was held by black or white man. Participants had more trouble distinguishing gun from harmless object when man was black than when he was white. Participants were faster to shoot when gun was held by a black man than by a white man
what are KSAO’s and what are they used for?
Knowledge, Skills, Abilities and Other personal characteristics analyzed in JOB ANALYSIS
testimonial stress
(stress AT trial). Stressful to report allegation in front of accused. Negatively impacts children’s ability to provide full and candid account. short and long-term mental health impacts. can be reduced with testimonial supports
For most serious indictable offences, the case must be heard by a jury unless
the Defence and Crown agree to a judge alone trial
suspect
person the police believe committed offence
T/F: the truth-lie discussion is admitted in Canadian criminal courts
FALSE. The truth-lie discussion is PROHIBITED in Canadian criminal courts BUT it may be used in interviews
psychosocial maturity
1) responsibility - the ability to make autonomous choices, free of external influences
2) temperance - the ability to control impulses and exercise self-restraint
3) perspective - ability to see short and long term consequences. See how one’s behaviour affects others. Weight the costs and benefits of a course of action
reasons to remain cautious with criminal profiling
- Used in very rare and specific circumstances; criminal profiling is a tool of last resort
- Carries risks: inaccurate profile may lead investigators to alter/bias/ignore investigative approach
- Range of methods used by people with diverse backgrounds; difficult to ensure adequate training
- Reliability and validity are not well established
risk assessment for youth look at
1) risk to reoffend
2) maturity
3) amenability to treatment
in a study that measure perception of memory for testimony presented either live or via CCTV, what were the findings?
that the LIVE condition reported memories as more COMPLETE and DETAILED and that the live condition was more ACCURATE in reporting child’s actual testimony
jury secrecy
Canadian criminal juries are prohibited from disclosing the contents of deliberations:
To promote full & frank discussion during deliberations
Ensure verdict finality
Protect jurors from harassment, censure, & reprisals
Gudjonsson has developed two psychological constructs relevant for the understanding false confessions: compliance and suggestibility. Compare and
contrast these two constructs, and describe a measure designed to evaluate each. (14 points)
• Compliance is the tendency to go along with people in authority. (1) It is a factor in coerced compliant false confessions (1)
• Suggestibility is the tendency to internalize information communicated during questioning. (1) It is a factor in coerced-internalized confessions.(1)
• The Gudjonsson Compliance Scale (GCS) (1) contains true-false items that measure
two types of interviewee behaviour. The first assesses the tendency
to comply with requests and obey instructions for instrumental gain (1), such as the termination of the interrogation, release from custody, avoidance of conflict, or eagerness to please the interviewer. The second assesses susceptibility to pressure
from others to avoid conflict (1).
• Gudjonsson’s Suggestibility Scales (GSS) (1) measure interrogative suggestibility, and tap into two distinct forms of suggestibility: After listening to a fictitious story,
individuals are asked to recall as many details from the story as they can, both
immediately and again after a 50-minute delay. (1) The second phase asks
participants 20 specific questions about the content of the story, 15 of which are
misleading. (1) Regardless of actual performance on these questions, participants are
provided with negative feedback from the examiner who informs them that they have made a number of errors. They are then sternly asked to respond to the same set of questions again and to try and provide more accurate answers. (1) The extent to which individuals give in to the misleading questions is scored as a yield (1), and any change
in the person’s answers from the previous trial is noted as shift. (1) The yield and shift scores are then added together for a Total Suggestibility score. (1)
unusual details _____ our attention
unusual details COMMAND our attention
CH.6 SA: Is the accused prejudiced when children testify with the aid of testimonial supports? Describe the primary study that addressed this question (Goodman et al., 1998) and
explain what they found and concluded. (11 points)
Children starred in a movie during which he or she put on a costume and the experimenter placed stickers on the child’s bare flesh (guilty condition) (1) or on the child’s cloths (not guilty condition) (1). Two weeks after the play session, the child came to an actual courtroom (1) and was told that the experimenter may have done something wrong (1). In groups, community members (1) listened to the child testify either live in the courtroom or via CCTV (1). Trial condition affected actual accuracy such that children were, in fact, more accurate (1) in the CCTV condition than in the live condition (1). However, perceptions of children’s accuracy (1) were lower in the CCTV condition than in the live condition (1). CCTV does not have a detrimental effect on perceptions of the accused. In fact, testimony via CCTV may reduce the chances of a conviction by reducing perceptions of the child’s accuracy (1)
Enhanced cognitive interview PROMPTS (4)
1) mental reinstatement: reconstruct context
2) report everything: do not screen out any info, no matter how trivial it seems
3) report event in variety of orders: e.g., beginning to end, from most memorable event
4) report event from variety of perspectives: e.g., different spatial locations, different person’s perspective
what were the pros of the Young Offender Act, 1984?
1) emphasized rights of young offenders while acknowledging that youth should be held to a different standard than adults
2) advocated for more treatment of youth
3) support increase of community based alternatives to treatment/detention
There may be core set of KSAOs that apply to all law enforcement officers. According to
Sanders (2003) what KSAOs are generally required in law enforcement? For each KSAO
name the KSAO, provide one example of it, and state a job function that is facilitated by
that KSAO. (15 points)
1) cognitive
2) physical
3) interpersonal
4) psychological
5) moral
explain deeper ugh fckin bullshit
when are the frontal lobes developed fully?
mid 20’s
foils
known innocents in line-ups
compliance
tendency to agree with people in authority
ex. Suspect confesses to crime because they want to please interrogator or avoid conflict
step seven of Reid Technique
ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS
- offer TWO options - BOTH consistent with guilt - one is morally LESS REPREHENSIBLE than the other
- was it an accident or did you do it on purpose?
- did you do it alone or with the help of others?
suspect is pressured to choose between 2 INCRIMINATING alternatives
Voir Dire
potential jurors are asked about exposure to pretrial publicity & whether they’ll be able to set aside biases.
not effective and may actually increase bias
step three of Reid Technique
HANDLING DENIALS
-do not allow the suspect to verbally deny - CUT THEM OFF when the denials start
police trickery
Trickery that is so appalling as to shock the community
EARLY 1300’s where was juvenile justice at?
young children should not be held to the same standards
CH.6 SA: Stereotype induction and peer influence can affect children’s reports of false details or false
events. Select one of these variables (suggestive questions or peer influence) and describe
the main study used to support the conclusion. Be sure to describe the methods used in the
study including the conditions (i.e., the groups of children), the dependent variable(s), and
the general results. You do not have to report the names of the authors or the precise data
that was reported. You should, however, describe the results generally. (7 points)
PEER INFLUENCE. Preschoolers in the same class went on an “archaeological dig” during
which some children observed a research assistant ruin two archaeological props. (1)
To encourage children who observed the misdeeds to talk to their classmates about
them, the destruction of the props was staged to be very dramatic. (1) Another group
of children went on the same archaeological dig, did not observe the misdeeds, and
were not exposed to the peer influence (this was the control condition). (1) On several
occasions after the archaeological dig, half of the children in each observation group
were questioned suggestively about the destruction of the two props. (1) Later, all
children were interviewed in a neutral way about what they had seen. (1) Among
children in the control condition, those who were questioned suggestively were more
likely to report having seen the misdeeds than children who were not questioned
suggestively. (1) Among children who were questioned suggestively and subject to
peer influence, children who had not witnessed the misdeeds were as likely as
children who had witnessed them to report that the misdeeds had occurred during
their archaeological dig. (1)
voluntary confession: atmosphere of oppression
- External pressures to confess
- Examples include a very lengthy interview, denial of food, water, or medical services
The Enhanced Cognitive interview relies on two cognitive principles. Name and briefly describe the principles. You do not have to list particular prompts that
follow from the principles. (4)
• Feature Overlap (1): Memory retrieval is enhanced when the encoding and retrieval contexts are similar. (1)
• Multiple Retrieval Paths (1): there are several retrieval paths to an encoded event;
different retrieval cues may lead to different details being reported. (1)
ch.7 SA: According to Grisso (2003), what are the four questions that should be addressed in forensic
evaluations of youth who have been convicted of an offense? (4 points)
1) What are the youth’s important characteristics?
2) What needs to change?
3) What modes of intervention could be applied toward the rehabilitation objective?
4) What is the likelihood of change, given the relevant interventions?
in a jury, at least ___ must deliberate to return a unanimous verdict
10
Young Offenders Act, 1984
1) Young people MUST assume responsibility for their illegal behaviour
2) Society has a right to be protected from illegal behaviour
3) youths are entitled to traditional legal rights and SOME additional protections
4) Young people have special needs and should be held accountable in same manner or extent as adults
why was is hard to successfully prosecute crimes involving sexual offences against children before 1982?
1) recent complaint doctrine
2) until 1988, a judge was REQUIRED to warn the TRIER OF FACT of the dangers of convicting on the uncorroborated evidence of an UNSWORN CHILD
3) there was a pervasive attitude that children’s evidence was inherently UNRELIABLE
benefits of photo line-ups
- easier to conduct adequate lineups
- don’t need suspect’s consent
- less time-consuming
- portable
- photo line-ups are statis
- witness may be less anxious
- all witnesses see the same photo
ch.7 SA: Discuss the four characteristics of a welfare based system of youth justice? (8 points)
1) First, youthful offending was seen as a symptom of a larger societal and/or familial problem.
(1) Symptoms of delinquency, all of which could be subject to state intervention, included
criminal activities and/or other potentially harmful activities such as truancy, sexual promiscuity, and/or incorrigibility. (1)
2) Second, young persons were denied many of the procedural rights guaranteed to adults. (1) Under this system, the welfare of youth was the primary concern and procedural rights impeded the process of helping young people. (1)
3) Third, indeterminate sentences were permitted. (1) When a young person was found to be delinquent, a disposition was passed to treat and cure the youth. Because the appropriate length of treatment varied from case to case and could not be known in advance, indeterminate sentences were passed
4) Fourth, the new system of youth justice established separate courts and correctional facilities.
(1)This system was to be staffed with specially trained judges and court personnel, such as
social service personnel, clinicians, and probation officers, who understood developmental
issues, were sensitive to the special needs of delinquents, and were qualified to make
appropriate therapeutic decisions. (1)
step five of Reid Technique
PROCUREMENT and RETENTION OF SUSPECTS ATTENTION
- move in towards the suspect
- maintain eye contact
- gently touch suspect and use his name
relative judgement (simultaneous presentation)
Comparing line-up members to one another and choosing the one who looks most like the perpetrator
Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale measure 2 types of interrogative suggestibility
1) the extent to which people YIELD to misleading questions
2) the extent to which people SHIFT their answers after receiving negative feedback
Characteristics of a good interview with a child: setting
child friendly but without too many distractions
according to Inabu and colleagues, guilty suspects’ denials are more…
DEFENSIVE, QUALIFIED and HESITANT
emotionally arousing events are often
unusual in some way
what are some factors that can negatively affect children’s reports?
1) encouraging and selectively rewarding disclosure of wrongdoing
2) peer influence (co-witness contamination)
3) parent/adult influence
4) imagining or pretending that something happened
in the 1960’s and 1970’s, the police force in Canada had an increasing representation of
women and ethnic/racial minorities
anticipatory stress
(stress BEFORE trial). Children express fear of prospect of testifying at trial. Anticipatory stress associated with mental health problems in adulthood
Transgression paradigm
6-7yo’s weremade to play with toy be adult confederate then were told that they would get in trouble if someone found out. experimental group were told to promise to tell the truth and control group were not told to. result was that 50% of kids in control group lied and only 20% of children who promised to tell the truth lied.
approach to criminal profiling: behaviour evidence analysis
Profilers make rational inferences about personal characteristics of perpetrators based directly on facts of case at hand
-No reference to “other offenders”
Pretrial Publicity
After a crime has been committed but before a charge has been laid.
Neither parties can request publication ban
what do more than half of all children allegations come from?
repeated abuse.
police psychology: consulting
activities support/enhance administration of law enforcement agencies
In the Sam Stone case, describe the 4 conditions children were in
1) stereotype (told pre-visit, once a week for 4 weeks)
2) suggestions ( told post-visit, once a week for 4 weeks)
3) stereotype and suggestions
4) control
What three types of false confession have been identified? Identify, define and briefly discuss each. (9 points)
• A voluntary false confession (1) occurs when an innocent person confesses without
being prompted by the police. Cases in which there is considerable media attention often draw voluntary false confessions. The motivation for this type of false
confession may be to gain fame or notoriety. A desire to protect friends or relatives is another motivation for a voluntary false confession. (1 for any of these reasons)
• A coerced-compliant false confession (1) occurs as a result of interrogation and the suspect wishes to escape from the stress of the interrogation, avoid a threat of harm or punishment, or gain a promised or implied reward such as being allowed to sleep, eat, or make a phone call. (1)
• A coerced-internalized false confession (1) results from highly suggestive
interrogations. (1) A a suspect who is coerced, tired, and highly suggestible may actually come to believe that he or she committed the crime. (1) Two factors account for this type of false confession. One is a internal factor, involving a vulnerable suspect with a malleable memory due to youth, interpersonal trust, naiveté, suggestibility, lack of intelligence, stress, fatigue, alcohol, or substance use. (1) The second is an external factor, involving the coercive police interrogation.(1)
selecting a jury: federal law
makes RULES for juror selection from panel
CH.7 SA: Describe Cauffman and Steinberg’s concept of psychosocial maturity. Does research support
this framework? (11 points)
Responsibility. (1) This involves the adolescent’s capacity to make autonomous choices,
independent of external influences, including adults but particularly peers. (1)
• Temperance. (1) Temperance involves the ability to control impulses and exercise selfrestraint. (1)
• Perspective. (1) This involves the ability to see both short- and long-term consequences
(time perspective), (1) the ability to understand how one’s actions might affect others
(perspective taking), (1) and the ability to weigh costs and benefits of a decision (1).
• Researchers found that individuals did differ significantly on the three domains of
psychosocial maturity as a function of age. These results provide support for the
conclusion that psychosocial maturity does develop over the period of adolescence. (1)
Other researchers found that temperance may be more predictive of offending behaviour
than the other elements of psychosocial development. (1) But age alone does not account
for differences in decision-making abilities, as there was considerable variation in
judgment within each age group. (1 point)
what were the attitudes of children as witnesses
they were seen as unreliable
police psychology: intervention
provisions of CLINICAL SERVICES to law enforcement personnel designed to promote and improve HEALTH and WELL-BEING of officers
CH.6 SA: Define competence
a question of admissibility of the testimony
what is the most common type of offending?
adolescent limited offending
Characteristics of a good interview with a child: non-contingent support
warm vocal tones, supportive eye contact, frequent smiling, rapport building, relaxed body posture
in what order is credibility the highest in regards to the way a testimony is presented?
highest credibility is LIVE, then CCTV condition, THEN the videotape condition
explanations for reminiscence: if different retrieval cues are used on different recall attempts…
somewhat DIFFERENT and CORRECT info may be recalled
Welfare-Based Model
youthful offending is a symptom of larger SOCIETAL/FAMILIAL problem - youth could be detained for “offences” that were not sanctioned for adults (“juvenile delinquency”).
Fewer procedural rights.
Indeterminate sentences.
Separate system for young offenders.
Characteristics of a good interview with a child: close well
1) prepare kid for next step
2) thank kid for effort
3) invite q’s
4) return to a neutral topic
children’s suggestibility
the degree to which encoding, storage, retrieval and reporting of events can be influenced by a range of social and psychological factors
how do you reduce confirmatory bias?
double-blind administration
storage
newly acquired info is placed in memory.
what are the two factors that affect vividness?
1) temporal proximity
2) locational proximity
In R. v. Hoilett, the accused was arrested late in the evening. A few hours later the
police removed his clothing for testing purposes, leaving him naked in a cell with
only metal fixtures and no blankets. The accused, too cold to sit, remained standing
for 11/2 hours until police provided him with ill-fitting clothing. At 3:00 a.m. he was
awakened for questioning at which point the police refused to provide warm
clothing or a tissue. Five times during the interview, the police officers noted the
accused was having trouble staying awake. The suspect confessed to the offence for
which he was charged but the Ontario Court of Appeal held that the confession was
involuntary. What grounds did the Court use to find the confession involuntary? (1
point)
Atmosphere of Oppression
when are the frontal lobes developed fully?
mid 20’s
in the history of juvenile justice, what were concerns regarding in the MID 1960’s?
1) Inequity of trying/holding youth for behaviors not sanctioned in the Criminal Code
2) Lack of due process rights
3) Efficacy of treatment programs
4) Need to hold youth accountable for criminal behaviour
step four of Reid Technique
OVERCOMING OBJECTIONS
- do not allow the suspect to object
centrality
central details of event are typically recalled more accurate and forgotten more slowly than peripheral details
intrinsic cognitive load
the amount of MENTAL EFFORT required by a task. The COMPLEXITY of the information that trainees are learning
cognitive load theory: extraneous cognitive load
unnecessary demands placed on trainee processing resources due to learning materials/instructional methods
CH.7 SA: If adult sentences given to young offenders lead to increased offending, what could some
causes be? (3 points)
1) The negative effects of labeling juveniles as serious offenders. (1)
2) Reduced opportunities for employment and community integration due to the conviction
and incarceration. (1)
3) The negative effects of imprisonment. (1)
Jury Selection: Impartiality
Set aside pre-existing biases, prejudices, & attitudes that might influence how the case is evaluated.
applicant screening: police psychologists role in POST-employment screening
police psychologists are DIRECTLY involved. They conduct evaluations with candidates
why do suggestibility effects occur? (3)
1) misinformation acceptance
2) source misattribution
3) memory impairment
What approach for interrogating suspects is used most often by police in Canada and the United States? Identify the approach, describe its structure, and summarize
critiques of it. (15 points)
Reid technique, non accusatorial interview, 9 steps.
Criticisms of the technique emphasize the pitfalls associated with using minimization and maximization techniques in interrogation. Gudjonsson (2003) concludes that the
techniques advocated by Inbau and his colleagues are inherently coercive in that they communicate implicit threats and promises to suspects (1).”
Give six reasons that most police departments use photo line-ups instead of live lineups? (6 points)
• real inconvenience of constructing an adequate live line-up (particularly in
smaller communities where the available foils, unknown to the W, are limited)
• based on a meta analysis, the empirical equivalence of live line-ups and photo
spreads (Cutler, Berman, Penrod, and Fisher, 1994)
• the rights of accused to refuse to participate in a live line-up or to have counsel
present during the identification procedure, however, the police can conduct a
photo line-up or a video line-up (R. v. Parsons, 1993, OJ No. 1937) w/o consent
of the suspect
• photo line-ups are less time-consuming to prepare
• photo line-ups are portable, making them much more convenient
• photo line-ups are static so the police do not have to be concerned with the
behaviour of any member of the line-up that could introduce bias
• the witness may be less anxious about examining a photo line-up compared to a
live line-up
why the differences in perceived accuracy?
1) vividness - a more vivid report is more credible than a less vivid report
2) memorability - a more vivid report should be more memorable
Targets of treatment for delinquent youth
1) causal factors
2) family
3) peers
4) community
what are the two possible explanations for weapon focus effect?
weapon focus effect: Witness will remember less about crime & perpetrator when a weapon is used than when there is no weapon
1) arousal hypothesis
2) unusualness hypothesis
what were the cons of the Young Offenders Act, 1984?
1) too punitive for minor offences
2) not punitive enough with more violent offenders
police psychology: 4 general domains of proficiency
1) ASSESSMENT:Development, implementation, evaluation of procedures for evaluating law enforcement applicants, officers & administrators
2) INTERVENTION: Provision of clinical services to law enforcement
3) OPERATIONAL: Activities support/enhance work of law enforcement officers including investigation & incident management
4) CONSULTING: Activities support/enhance administration of law enforcement agencies
Limited publication ban is mandatory
After jury has been empaneled
Define and contrast the strategies of maximization and minimization as used by police in interrogation of suspects. (7 points)
• In maximization, the interrogator uses “scare tactics” designed to intimidate a suspect
into a confession. (1) This intimidation is achieved by emphasizing or even
overstating the seriousness of the offense and the magnitude of the charges.
Detectives might also make false or exaggerated claims about the evidence (e.g., by
staging an eyewitness identification or a rigged lie-detector test, by claiming to have fingerprints or other types of forensic evidence, or by citing admissions that were supposedly made by an accomplice). (1)
• In minimization, interrogators offer face-saving excuses, moral justification, blaming
a victim or accomplice, or playing down the seriousness of the charges. (2 points for any 2 strategies)
• Contrasting the two types of interrogation categories, Costanzo (2004) comments that
“maximization implies a threat of severe punishment and minimization implies a
promise of leniency” (2)
up to _____ of children delay reporting their sexual abuse
2/3
factors that affect eyewitness testimony: time
time to observe. time between the event and the recall. The effect of time on memory is complex.
active interpretation
our expectations
simulation-based training limitations
- Limited opportunity to practice skills
- Exposure to potentially dangerous situations without sufficient skill
- Highly controlled situations may not generalize
CH.6 SA: According to Van Tongeren Harvey and Dauns, “[b]efore 1982 sexual offences involving
children were virtually impossible to prosecute to conviction” (2001, p. 148). Your book
describes three obstacles to successful prosecution. Name each barrier and discuss what
impact it could have had on trials involving child witnesses. (10 points)
The recent complaint doctrine (1) stated that if any victim of sexual assault (1), whether a
child or an adult, did not complain of the assault at the first available opportunity, the
judge was required to draw an adverse inference with respect to credibility (1) or consent
(1). This doctrine would have had a profound impact on prosecutions involving child
sexual abuse because up to two-thirds of children delay reporting sexual abuse. (1)
In a case involving an unsworn child (1), the judge was required to warn the trier of fact
of the dangers of convicting (1) on the uncorroborated evidence (1) of the child. Most
children testify as unsworn witnesses and in many cases of child sexual abuse there is no
evidence other than the (uncorroborated) testimony of the child. (1).
There was a pervasive belief that children’s evidence is inherently unreliable. (1)
Leo & Lui’s study on jury eligible students
264 jury eligible students. Asked about coercive interview techniques and MOST AGREED that coercive tactics would lead to TRUE confessions
BUT
MOST DISAGREED that coercive tactics would lead to FALSE confessions
CH.6 SA: Define credibility
how much weight the trier of fact places on the testimony
in the Administration of Justice study where kids testified either by CCTV or live, why one judged the children as more accurate, more attractive/intelligent, more honest and less likely to fabricate?
in the live condition
unconscious transference
Eyewitness mistakenly identifies innocent bystander present at crime as perpetrator
________ may be more predictive of offending behaviour and which part of the brain controls this?
Temperance may be more predictive of offending behaviour
frontal lobe
CH.6 SA: Define Recent Compaint Doctrine
In all cases involving sexual offences, a trier of fact was required to draw an adverse inference with respect to consent of credibility if the victim did not complain at the first available opportunity
Factors that could affect an adolescents fitness to stand trial
1) cognitive development
2) maturity
3) ADHD
4) impaired verbal ability
5) low intelligence
CH. 8 SA: Provide four reasons for the finding that gist and the central details of emotionally arousing events are remembered better that the gist and central details of benign events? (4 points)
Events are emotional because they relate to things we care about and so details of
the event have special meaning for us and this leads to better memory; (2) We tend to rehearse emotional events more than neutral events and this leads to better memory; (3) Highly emotional events may activate amygdala-based processing that leads to particularly vivid memories (not necessarily accurate, but subjectively experienced as vivid); (4) There is a narrowing of attention to the central details of events that are emotionally arousing leading to good memory for
gist and central details at the expense of memory for peripheral details.
Reid Technique: isolation
heightened vulnerability
Temptation paradigm
used on 3-7yo’s in a peeking game. E left the room and told them not to peak - most did. when he came back, he asked if they peaked. Result was that the group of kids that weren’t made to promise and tell the truth lied the most and vice versa
cross-race identification
Within-race identifications are more likely to be accurate than cross-race identifications (own-race bias)
police psychologists can help
- hire the best possible officers
- give the best possible education and training
- support police to do best possible job
approach to criminal profiling: deductive analytic technique
CASE-FOCUSED/IDIOGRAPHIC
Infer perpetrator characteristics from review of offence evidence without explicit consideration of/reference to general knowledge about other perpetrators/offences
explanations for reminiscence: the nature of _____ ______ influences which components are RETRIEVED
the nature of THE RETRIEVAL CUE
freeze technique
measures of trainees’ understanding are taken several times throughout a simulation
- Increases situational awareness
- Improve decision making
- Reduces cognitive effort after training
when was the recent complaint doctrine and judicial warning abolished?
late 1980’s
step six of Reid Technique
HANDLING SUSPECT’S PASSIVE MOOD
- a sign that the suspect is ready to give up
- use sympathy and understanding as a way to break-down any residual resistance to confessing
Sampson and Laub, 2003 did a longitudinal study involving 500 male delinquents and 500 male non-delinquents. What were the findings and were they a support for Moffits model that talks about adolescent limited affending and life-course-persistent offenders?
NO support for Moffit’s model
how do you test the fairness of a line up?
1) make a line up
2) provide a description of the suspect to a non-witness
3) ask the non-witness to identify the perpetrator
trier of law
decides all questions of law (e.g., admissibility of evidence)
KSAO’s
Knowledge
Skills
Abilities
Other personal characteristics
interviewer effects study
Trained social workers interviewed preschoolers about earlier game. Social workers asked leading questions about incorrect information & children sometimes acquiesced
suggestibility
tendency to internalize information communicated during questioning
ex. Suspect confesses because they come to believe the information being communicated in interrogation
police psychology: operational
activities SUPPORT/ENHANCE work of law enforcement officers including investigation and incident management
underlying general principle of criminal profiling
make inferences about identity of perpetrator based on inferences about offence
approach to criminal profiling: Criminal Investigative Analysis (4)
made by FBI.
1) Classify offence according to motivational typology using offence/crime scene info
2) Reconstruct offence circumstances
3) Look for evidence of “signatures”
4) Generate profile that speculates about detailed personal characteristics of perpetrator
CH.6 SA: Define open prompts
Prompts, or questions, that allow a response that is minimally constrained by the question (e.g., “tell me more about that”)
amygdala-based processing leads to
vivid memories
criminal profiling attempts to make process more rigorous through
1) ENHANCED RELIABILITY: made the process more systematic by specifying the way a profile should be constructed
2) IMPROVED VALIDITY: attempted to ground approaches in scientific theory and research
adolescent-limited offenders
1) no apparent childhood antisocial or interpersonal problems
2) begin offending during teenage years
3) most common type of young offender
4) delinquent behaviour may be normative in teenage years
when policing shifted more towards community and problem-oriented policing, what was a must for police to do?
1) work more closely with the public
2) mobilize and cooperate with other community agencies
3) help PREVENT crime by taking steps to address its root causes
the stages of memory
1) encoding
2) storage
3) retrieval
describe Gabbert and Fisher’s experiment on participants watching robbery video and what was the experiment about?
experiment was about REMINISCENCE.
participants watched video of robbery and recalled it 10 mins later and 2 days later.
98% of participants reported at least ONE NEW DETAIL after 2 days (reminiscence).
On average - EIGHT new details reported after 2 days ad the proportion of accurate new details was .87
Tertiary intervention
AFTER the problem arises and goal is to reduce recidivism and it occurs in institutions.
ex. multidimensional treatment foster care
step one of Reid Technique
DIRECT POSITIVE CONFRONTATION
- tell suspects that there is no doubt that he committed the offence
- observe reaction
- tell him why it would be in his best interest to confess
target-present line-up
culprit IS the suspect.
the correct decision is for the witness to identify the culprit.
pre-identification instructions
police should instruct witness PRIOR to viewing lineup that perpetrator may or may not be present. Reduces number of inaccurate false identifications.
what is the age for an unsworn child today?
UNDER the age of 14
memories are influenced by _____ acquired ______ and _____ event
memories are influenced by INFORMATION acquired BEFORE and AFTER event
Two types of judgements
1) relative judgement (simultaneous presentation)
2) absolute judgement (sequential presentation)
Reid Technique - Deception Detection
Assumes detectives can detect untruthful suspects by relying on verbal or non-verbal cues
List the best practice recommendations put forth by the AP-LS subcommittee and
Gary Wells on eyewitness identification. (4 points)
• Wells and his colleagues (1998) made the following recommendations for
investigators who administer lineups to suspects. The reasons for these rules were discussed earlier. First, the person who administers the lineup should not know which lineup member is the suspect. Second, the witness should be
told that the perpetrator may not be in the lineup and they should be told
that the person administering the line up does not know which member is the suspect (if that is true). Third, the suspect should not stand out in the lineup for any reason. Forth, obtain confidence judgments immediately after an identification is made.
judicial warning
a warning given to judges about how its dangerous to convict based on uncorroborated evidence of child
CH.6 SA: Name the five subscales of Criteria-Based Content analysis. (5 points)
1) General characteristics
2) Specific content
3 Peculiarities of the content
4) Motivation-related content
5) Details characteristic of the offence
May submit application to court to issue a publication ban
After a charge is laid but before a jury is empaneled
Gudjonsson Compliance Scale measures 2 types of interview behaviour
1) tendency to comply with requests and obey instructions for instrumental gain
2) susceptibility to pressure from others to commit offence
EARLY 1600’s where was juvenile justice at?
DOLI INCAPAX. Under 7 years of age, NOT criminally responsible. Between 7 and 14, criminally responsible IF malice
CH. 8 SA: Describe a study that demonstrated selective attention (you do not need to provide the names of the authors) (2 points)
male and female witnesses to a purse-snatching described what they had seen (1) ; males had better memory for the culprit while females had better memory for the victim(1). Arguably, males devoted more attention to the culprit while females
devoted more attention to the victim.
CH.6 SA: Explain a condition under which younger children are seen as more credible than older children and adults and explain why this may occur. (10 points)
An overall evaluation of perceived credibility involves two constructs: perceived honesty and perceived cognitive ability (2). When the abilities to encode, store, and retrieve details do not require sophisticated cognitive skills, honesty will be more salient (1). This is true of an event that occurred in a familiar location, by familiar persons, and/or in
predictable ways (as often defines child abuse (1). If the witness is attempting to be
honest, he or she will probably be accurate, at least on central details (1). When honesty
is more salient younger children are viewed more positively than older children and adults (1). This is due, in large part, to: (a) children’s perceived impoverished cognitive sophistication (1)and consequent inability to fabricate a convincing lie concerning events about which they have little knowledge (i.e., sex) (1), (b) children’s perceived innate innocence (1), and child victims are seen as vulnerable (1)
factors that affect eyewitness testimony
1) estimator variables
2) system variables
3) time
4) centrality
5) emotionality
6) weapon focus effect
7) misinformation
8) cross-race identification
9) unconscious transference
what is the primary objective in an interrogation?
secure a confession
foils should not be so similar than an
identification is impossible
juries may make non-binding recommendation on sentencing ONLY IF
A youth is convicted of 1st or 2nd degree murder or if An adult is convicted of 2nd degree murder
approach to criminal profiling: Geographic Profiling
Uses criminological theory, quantitative analysis of geospatial data, & typologies of offender mobility to determine perpetrator characteristics
-Focus of on identifying likely residence or travel routes of perpetrators
recommendations for identification procedures
1) Line-up administrators & witnesses should be blind to identity of suspect
2) Witness should be told that perpetrator may not be in the line-up
3) Foils should resemble a description of the culprit (Test with non-witnesses)
4) Use sequential line-up procedures
5) Collect confidence judgments from choosers immediately after identification
6) Videotape the administration of the line-up
(police psychology) assessment domain: job analysis
process of identifying relevant knowledge, skills, and abilities, & other personal characteristics (KSAOs) required for various positions in law enforcement agency
arrest rights of youth
Youth must be informed that:
1) They have the right to silence
2) That any statement may be used as evidence against them
3) They have the right to counsel and a parent or other adult
4) These right must be explained in language appropriate to age
5) `Rights can be waived if court believes that youth was informed of rights & voluntarily waived them
general criteria to be part of jury
adults, canadian citizens, residents of province, not legal professionals, no criminal record, no language barriers
Police forces or law enforcement agencies
bureaucracies created by GOVERNING BODIES to maintain PUBLIC ORDER and SAFETY by ensuring COMPLIANCE with laws
Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY): individual/clinical risk factors
risk taking/impulsivity, low empathy/remorse
children can be very accurate but are also quite susceptible to
post-event suggestions
what were the changes in NA in regards to juvenile justice?
1) youth have SOME due process rights
2) Implemented determinate sentences
3) Eliminated determinate sentences
4) Young people can only be charged with criminal offenses
5) increased emphasis on accountability and responsibility
what do Canadian juries do
- return a verdict
- may make non-binding recommendation on sentencing ONLY IF A youth is convicted of 1st or 2nd degree murder or if An adult is convicted of 2nd degree murder
is jury available in provincial court?
no. provincial court is all summary offences and minor indictable offences
Describe the three major findings or conclusions that we can draw about the effectiveness
of applicant screening procedures. Should we remain cautious when considering their
implementation? (9 points)
• One study examined scores on a personality inventory that measured antisocial
personality, attitudes, and personality and correlated them with job performance
problems in 800 police officers candidates. They found a small but significant
correlation between exam scores and subsequent job performance. (2 marks; one for method and one for result)
• In another study researchers recorded police recruits’ scores on cognitive abilities tests, situational tests, and an interview that focused on attitudes and behavioural history and correlated them with performance at a police training camp. The test/interview scores were significantly correlated with success at the training camp. (2 marks; one for method
and one for result)
• In a third study, researchers compared two groups of police candidates; one group passed a high-intensity screening procedure and the other group passed a low-intensity screening procedure. At the end of one year, the group that passed high-intensity screening performed better on a variety of job performance markers than the group in the
low-intensity screening condition. (2 marks; one for method and one for result)
• The story is good but not flawless. There is not a perfect correlation between test scores and job performance. (1) To do a thorough evaluation requires a lot of resources and the cost-benefit ratio may not be acceptable. (1) Finally, it has been argued that this type of screening puts too much emphasis on the past and general personality/cognitive abilities and not enough on the present and on demonstrated job performance (1)
