Final Exam Flashcards
What is the I self
Doing things, active person, the one that is doing
What is the ME self
reflective, subjective, what you believe or understand about yourself
Your self-concept, not objectively accurate.
Can you have multiple selves?
Yes, the actual self, the ideal self, the possible self, the true self, etc.
What is the Essentialist view of the True Self
self-actualization. The self we are supposed to be.
Is “genetic” and resistant to change, there from an early age, inherent to us.
Sometimes we behave in ways that _____________ our true self: …
contradict
feeling about HOW we behave, not the behaviours themselves (Indicated more by feelings than behaviours)
Points against the Essentialist view of the True Self
- We change over time, and our self-concept changes too (strong intuitions)
- Outside observers don’t agree with each other on someone else’s true self, nor with the person’s opinion of their own true self
- Psychologists can easily deceive people about WHY they did the things they did, so why would they not be deceived about their opinion of their true self?
Self-Determination theory view of the Self
what do people think? Subjective interpretations
- Authentic: “truly me”, represents the true authentic self
- Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivations
Two types of Authenticity in the Self
- Trait: correlated with SWB, and psychological well-being (PWB)
- State/momentary: correlated with positive emotions
Sources of Authenticity of the Self (3)
- Manipulated: When you put people in a good mood, they report more state authenticity
- Values: positive features a person thinks are important to the self
o Competence, tradition, power, benevolence - Behaving consistently with your values is important to feeling authentic
o Eudaimonia
_____________ moods cause ________ authenticity
positive….. state
When does an introvert feel authentic?
regardless of trait level, they feel more authentic when displaying extraverted, agreeable, conscientious, stable, & open behaviour
- These behaviours can help you express other parts of yourself/your personality that make you feel authentic.
- WANT to be extraverted?
Explain the Benevolence Value Debate Study
- Randomly assigned ‘pro’ or ‘con’ position on
- Debate a hypothetical other by responding
- (Assume ‘pro’ is more value-congruent for all)
- Results: strong effect on state authenticity (and
stronger if benevolence an important value)
PERSONALITY
In some ways, people are… (3)
Like all other people
– Basic needs and capacities: SDT, language
Like some other people
– Individual & group differences: traits, gender, etc.
Like no other person
– Individually unique quirks, life stories, projects
Where does personality come from? (5)
evolution genes prenatal experience early temperament development
Lexical approach to OCEAN
if there are a lot of synonyms then it must be an important category and they can be grouped together
Three approaches to OCEAN
lexical, theory, statistical
6 facets of extraversion
friendless, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity level, excitement seeking, cheerfulness
PERSONALITY
Behavioural Action System
what initiated behaviour based on environment stimuli
Extraverts are driven to be social by ________:
Extraversion __________ Bias:
Extraverts are best at __________
extraverts are easier to _____________________ in and it _________________________
… by rewards: they will choose to not be social if it will be unpleasant
cognition… extraverts thought processes are more attuned to positive interpretations
savour
induce happiness…. lasts longer
Traits are ____________:
dimensional: not on/off, one or the other… it’s a spectrum
PERSONALITY
8 other individual differences:
needs or motives goals interests self-concept values attachment style abilities character strengths
PERSONALITY
8 other individual differences, compared to traits are…. (3)
– Usually more specific or clearly defined
– Usually assumes causes or consequences
– Yet may overlap part of what’s included in trait
PERSONALITY
The Jingle Fallacy
Jingle fallacy: when two things have basically the same name but describe two different things
- Optimism: 2 different approaches – ask people to report questions about the future OR attributional style, internal vs external control
PERSONALITY
The Jangle Fallacy
Jangle fallacy: when you use two different terms to talk about the same thing
- When people invent new terms to describe old things
- ISSUE: miss out on all the other things previously studied about on the other thing
_________ and __________ are positive psychology’s 2 personality units
strengths… virtues
PERSONALITY
3 Benefits of DSM that positive psychologists took when characterizing Strengths and virtues
o Common language
o Direct research and assessment
o Provides a map for other institutions
PERSONALITY
3 Things the DSM was lacking in that were added when categorizing people’s Strengths and virtues
o Categorical vs dimensional (took a more dimensional approach)
o Number of constructs
o Aspires to greater validity, more universality
10 Criteria for Strengths
- contributes to _________: ….
- Strengths are ___________________: …
- Using it does not _______________
- No obvious __________________
- ______-like ( … )
- Distinctive from __________________
- Has ___________ ( … )
- Has ___________ ( … )
- Selective _____________ ( … )
- Cultivated by ___________________ ( … )
- Contributes to fulfillment: Beyond coping & merely feeling good (audaimonia)
- Strengths are valued themselves: Beyond outcome; invokes social/moral value (ability or talent)
- Using it does not diminish others
- No obvious positive opposite
- Trait-like (mostly stable and consistent)
- Distinctive from other strengths
- Has paragons (cardinal traits)
- Has prodigies (multiple intelligences)
- Selective absences (distinct cause or function)
- Cultivated by institutions and rituals
Assessing Character Strengths
Self-report
structured interview
content analysis
6 Broad Categories of Strengths and Virtues
wisdom courage humanity justice temperance transcendence
Strengths and Virtues
6 Initial Findings
Internally consistent & stable
Agreement with peer reports
Similar levels across cultures
Associated with Life satisfaction, especially ‘strengths of the heart’ (gratitude, hope, zest, etc)
Effect of crisis
Age differences (small increases with age)
What is Self-efficacy
The belief that you can take steps necessary for success
Is specific, not generalized
Actual success is higher with efficacy
4 Sources of Self-Efficacy
- Personal experience of success
- Vicarious experience (modelling/seeing other people do the same)
- Persuasion
- Physiological states
What is Self-Esteem
Primary evaluation of the self, positive judgement of self, also depends on how others view us, social feedback
Can be assessed as a state in the current moment, but usually is treated like a trait
General, global judgement of self (as opposed to efficacy, which is specific)
May include genuine positive evaluation, and potentially defensive, narcissistic views
Self Esteem is correlated with (4)
o Higher happiness and less depression
o Higher positive emotions, SWB
o Higher academic success (very moderate correlation, not as strong as correlation to SWB)
o Persistence after failure (“impossible task” study)
Self Esteem is NOT correlated with (3)
o Objectively better relationships
o General lab task performance (they will persist more, but are not better)
o Not necessarily protective against drug use, early sex, bullying, etc.
Self-Esteem may be an ___________ not a _______ of good things
outcome
cause
Trying to increase SE with non-___________
praise….
…contingent
may backfire for low SE people
may increase narcissism
Striving for SE may cause (2)
o Contingent, unstable SE (variable and reliant on particular outcomes happening)
o Distortion, aggressive, derogatory of others
What is Self-Compassion (3 components)
- Common Humanity vs Isolation: Recognizes common humanity: similar things among most people (i.e. “everyone makes mistakes”; “Everyone has bad days”)
- Self-Kindness vs Judgement: Takes mindful approach to negative parts of self: Aware of them, but does not judge them
- Mindfulness vs Over-Identification: Treat self with kindness
Self-compassion is correlated to (8)
o Life satisfaction
o Emotional intelligence
o Optimism
o Curiosity
o Social connectedness
o Trait conscientiousness, achievement strivings, self-control
o Low levels of depression, anxiety, failure, perfectionism
Self-Compassion vs. Self-Esteem
Substantial correlation (.58), but not ‘same’
• Self-Compassion vs. Self-Esteem
• Feeling safe, secure vs. being ‘better’
• Connects to others vs. distinguishing self from
them
• Relevant/useful with failure vs. threatened
by failure
Self-Compassion vs. Self-Esteem
LAB RESEARCH
- Imagined screw-ups (sports, theatre)
- Video introduction with pos/neut feedback
- Manipulated SC vs. SE (vs. control) strategies
- Imagining causing a screw up:
High SC associated with feel less bad about the imagined scenario
SE has no association - positive or neutral feedback:
People high in SC did not get upset by neutral feedback, mood didn’t change
People high in SE were upset and unaccepting of neutral feedback, even thinking there was a mistake made - Told to recall a past failure
SC manipulation were told to write a letter of acceptance of mistake to self, like you would to a friend
• Had less negative moods, tool more responsibility for the mistake
SE manipulation were told to write down why they were a good person, how it wasn’t their fault, etc
• Were still in negative moods, did not take responsibility
The Self Across Cultures: Independent Cultures
- support abstracted traits more (i.e. OCEAN; will describe self using trait words more than role words)
- consistent self in all situations
- self-enhancement: view self as “special”, enhance self
- tend to remember memories in a way that is also more self-enhancing
- personal paths to fulfillment: do what makes you happy
The Self Across Cultures: interdependent Cultures
- view self more as roles: changes in self-concept depending on environment/role (i.e. student vs co-worker vs sibling etc)
- variable self (relates to roles)
- view self as “ordinary”, fitting in with others around them
- less happy than we expect them to be: due to societal rules that are expected of them (i.e. do well in school, do what your parents tell you, etc)
2 criteria for creativity
uniqueness, originality
usefulness
The 4Ps of creativity
process, products, personality, press
Creativity as a Cognitive Process
4 assessments used to measure creativity
- Alternate uses tasks
- Divergent Thinking (unorthodox solutions to problems)
- Reduced ‘latent inhibition’
- Remote Associates Test (o Given 3 different words and find 1 word that relates to all three)
4 Issues with assessing creativity
o Counting: but just because someone has the MOST songs written, that doesn’t mean they are the most creative.
o Expert or subjective ratings
o Counting ‘impact’: count how influential it is: number of citations, downloads, performances, covers, etc.
o Self-reports of accomplishments
Personality and Intelligence in Creativity
- Best OCEAN trait:
- Intelligence:
- Divergent Thought:
- Openness
- General intelligence and expertise in the field you are being creative in are helpful.
- Children: naivety useful to divergent thought: unorthodox solutions to problems
Environment that fosters Creativity (4)
- Autonomous work space
- Positive mood, esp. high arousal (i.e. preppy, excited, upbeat)
- Norm Violation: mix things up, make them think differently
o Do things in a different way than usual = perform better on the remote associates test - Multicultural experiences
o Moderated by openness to experience
What is Wisdom: The virtue of wisdom VS wise reasoning
- VIRTUE of wisdom: Judgement, perspective, curiosity, love of learning, creativity
o NOT the same as how wisdom is often researched - Wise Reasoning
o Seeing multiple perspectives
o Uncertainty: knowing they might be wrong
o Pragmatic
o Prosocial motivations: can’t be used for evil, used for greater good
How to measure wisdom (2)
- Self-reports are indirect: won’t ask “are you wise”
- Modesty is important
- Sometimes rating/describing specific events
- Rating specific events
Who is Wise?
- Age
- Cognition
- OCEAN
- PWB
- No clear increase with age
- Those suffering from cognitive decline don’t score high on wisdom tasks
- Big 5 Openness
- Intelligence
- Links with psychological well-being
o Sense of personal growth
Situational Effects on Wisdom
Why is it easier to think of solution when imagining it as someone else’s problem not your own?
Reducing ego-centric perspective helpful
– Cultures with less individualism
Like traits, virtues, & SWB, Intelligence is… (3)
Hierarchically structured
Heritable
Sensitive to environmental influence
Hierarchy of Intelligence
- Top
- 6 categories
- Subcategories
General Intelligence is top of hierarchy
Spatial, Numerical, Memory, Verbal, Fluency, Perceptual Speed
Each have 4 subcategories.
- Subcategories are more highly correlated with each other in their category (e.g. V1 to V4) than with subcategory from a different category (e.g. Spatial)
Correlates of General Intelligence
- education
- work performance
- income
- criminal behaviour
- SES (2)
- HIGH educational achievement
- Variable Work performance
- Relatively low income
- Negatively correlated to criminal behaviour
- High correlates to your OWN socio-economic status (SES)
- Low correlates to your parent’s SES when growing up
More general intelligence predicts __________________________
greater accomplishment
Evidence on Learning styles: “visual” vs “audible” etc learning
- No good evidence for matching modalities to the person causing increased learning
- Good evidence that teaching across modalities is good.
Heritability of IQ: What is the Education Effect?
Evidence shows that people with higher IQ stay in school longer, BUT education also increases IQ, so the longer you stay in school the higher your IQ
Heritability of IQ and what that means
- Substantial (e.g., 50-75%)
- What this means:
- People are not ‘blank slates’
- Many many genes (mostly unknown)
- Does not imply IQ is ‘fixed’
- Flynn effect: Rising IQs over time
- Education effect (meta-analysis example)
Accomplishments depend on (3)
- Ability/Intelligence (cognitive)
- Interests (affective): you do better if you enjoy it
- Mastery/Drive (conative)
INTELLIGENCE
Study Techniques
The best (2), Mid-level (3), and worst (5) techniques
The best: - Practice tests - Distributed practice Mid: - Interleaved learning - Self-explanation, - elaborative interrogation Worst: - Highlighting, - complete re-reading, - summarizing, - imagery, - key-word memory triggers
What is Affective Forecasting?
- Impact Bias
- Immune Neglect
- Focusing Illusion
Notion that prediction errors impede happiness maximization
- Impact bias: tendency to over-estimate intensity or duration of emotional reaction
- Immune neglect: under-estimating what we do to cope with bad experiences
- Focusing illusion: failing to consider the full picture, focusing on one thing
What is Resilience?
- good outcomes in spite of serious threats to
adaptation or development - maintenance, recovery, or improvement in health
following challenge
Resilience in Midlife Development in the U.S. (MIDUS) (3)
• Dealing with difficult circumstances (low SES,
discrimination)
• Dealing with aging
• Dealing with specific challenges (abuse,
illness)
Protective Factors Associated with Resilience (10)
- Positive Emotions
- Positive thinking (or realism?)
- Sense of control
- Intelligence
- Self-complexity
- Religion, faith
- Social support
- Family cohesion, warmth, support
- Sense of community
• (Difficulty of separating outcome vs. protective factor)
Resilience and SES Challenges
- Relationship between ________ and SES is ________
- _________________ helps with lower SES
- _________ _________ reduces SES health indicator disparities
- _______ and ___________ perceptions of _______________
health…. linear
Psychological Well-Being (PWB)
maternal warmth
Race… protective… discrimination
Resilience and Challenges of Aging
- __________ and _________ health risk; __________ changes
- Buffered by _______ ___________, physical ___________, sense of ___________, __________ in life
- ___________ and __________ predict SWB, PWB
- __________ contact buffer against __________ decline
physical…. mental… cognitive
social support… exercise… control… purpose
volunteering… donations
social… cognitive
Resilience and Life Challenges
- Child physical abuse predicts __________________, but buffered by _____________________ and ____________________________
- Loss of spouse causes decrease in _________________, less pronounced in those with high baseline of _____________________
poor outcomes… sense of control… community support
positive affect… positive reappraisal
What is Emerging Depression
describes the pattern of depression over time that predicts high mortality following heart attacks
POST-TRAUMATIC GROWTH
Heart Attacks and Depression (4 points)
• Most people were resilient
• Developing depression post heart attack
predicted mortality
• Otherwise depression not predictive
• optimism at first measure predicted resilience
Post-Traumatic Growth Inventory (5 items)
- relating to others
- personal strength
- new possibilities
- appreciation of life
- spiritual change
Frazier et al. (2009) Perceived Traumatic Growth Study
- ____________ finding
- _______________ measure where participants rate:
- __________ standing on a dimension
- _________ past standing on same dimensions
- Compare the two, assess degree of __________
benefit retrospective current recall change
Frazier et al. (2009) Perceived Traumatic Growth (PTG) Study RESULTS
- PTG change ______ ___________ related to ________ changes
- perceived growth correlates with more ____________
- actual growth correlated with less __________
- Changes in ___________ ______________
not strongly… actual
distress
distress
religious commitment
Limitations of Frazier et al. (2009) Perceived Traumatic Growth (PTG) Study (3)
– Sample (122 of 1500 recruited)
– Kinds of trauma (?)
– Short time frame (2 months)
The Social Environment
People are interconnected through… (4)
– Choices
– Opportunities
– Constraints
– Society
What is Prosocial Behaviour
Includes anything that increases another’s well-being: – Cooperation – Helping – Sharing • Does not need to be ‘altruistic’
Prosocial Behaviour: Are people Naughty or Nice? Evolution of the Nice Parts DEFINE Kin Altruism Reciprocal Altruism Competitive Altruism
- Kin Altruism: altruistic behaviour whose evolution is driven by kin selection.
- Reciprocal: a person acts in a manner that temporarily reduces its fitness while increasing another’s fitness, with the expectation that the other will reciprocate
- Competitive: the presence of cooperative behaviors in organisms that don’t have a direct benefit to the organism performing the the behavior.
What is the Empathy-altruism hypothesis
feelings of empathy for another person produce an altruistic motivation to increase that person’s welfare.
- empathy refers to feelings of compassion, sympathy, tenderness, and the like.
- Altruism refers to a motivational state in which the goal is to increase another person’s welfare as an end in itself.
Getting Along: Social Dilemmas
- Conflict between: __________________ and ____________________
- _____________ is best for the group
- Possible to ________, for an advantage, but if ______________ does, it’s no good
immediate personal benefit… collective well-being
cooperation
cheat…. everyone
Social Dilemmas: Two Kinds
Common Resource Dilemmas – A good exists; how much do I take? – ‘take some’ ‘social trap’ Public Goods Dilemmas – A good is being created; should I contribute? – ‘give some’ ‘social fence’
Solving Social Dilemmas
- 3 features of the dilemma
- 4 features of the situation
Features of dilemma
– Ethical vs. business frame; community vs. private
– Certainty (amount available or needed)
– Repeated interactions, experience
Features of situation – Communication – Group size – Social norms – In-group vs. out-group
What is Intuitive Prosociality
Evidence for the support of Intuitive Prosociality
Could prosocial behavior/preference be
automatic or intuitive, at least sometimes? (As opposed to reflection and self-control)
- Neuroscience correlates: Prosociality associated with reward seeking and cognitive control
- Early Development: Little delay of gratification or executive control has developed, however young children will help without request, offer useful info, etc
emotions that nudge towards prosocial behaviour (3)
Awe
Gratitude
Elevation/Inspiration
4 part model of Love
passionate
companionate
compassionate
attachment
Passionate Love
- What is it
- Similar to…
Begins with physical attraction, signs of liking
Promotes a sexual relationship
Similar to Eros
Companionate Love
- What is it
- Similar to
- Genuine love requires…
- Love is a deep…
Begins with familiarity, similarity, friendship
Promotes spending time together, expressions of liking
Similar to ‘Storge’
Genuine love first requires caring for awhile.Love is really a deep friendship, not a mysterious, mystical emotion
The Prototype Approach to love
- Ask people to nominate…
- Ask others to rate…
- ______________ love features were more __________
- Similar in ____________ relationships
features of love/loves
prototypicality
companionate… typical
romantic
Gender Differences in Love
- Men more prone to…..
- Women more prone to….
Men more prone to ‘romantic’ conceptions
Woman more prone to pragmatic or companionate conceptions, friendship love
Culture Differences in Love
- _______________ vs ____________ cultures
- _____________ vs ______________ marriages
- ______ conceptions high in all, but higher with _________________
- _________ conceptions lower in ________________
individual vs collectivist
romantic vs arranged
eros… individualists
storge… individualists
Romantic Relationships Over Time
Does passion fade into companionate love?
- Experience of love associated with….
- Love experience important to _________________
(commitment), but less so after __________
– Not really, both possible early, both fade
– Long relationships still have passion
satisfaction
staying together… marriage
Oxytocin: The Love Hormone?
- examples of early correlates (3)
- other methods (3)
– Breastfeeding, empathy, trust, childbirth
– Envy, in-group bias
– Thus, distinctiveness & causation questions
– Nasal spray and blood-brain barrier
– Failures to replicate
Romantic Relationships
- 3 factors that determine initial attraction
- Helpful personality traits
- 3 attachment styles
– Proximity and exposure
– Similarity, physical attractiveness
– Building intimacy via sharing
helpful traits: agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability
attachment styles: secure, avoidant, anxious
What is Relationship Capitalization
• Sharing positive news or event
• Can build intimacy
• Yet potential for vulnerability
• Responses of partner key
• Responses to positive events may predict
future relationship better; an early ‘test’
• Compare perceived vs. received social support
Relationship Capitalization: 4 types of responses from a partner
- Active and Constructive (authentic, enthusiastic support)
- Active and Destructive (point out negative)
- Passive and Constructive (understated support)
- Passive and Destructive (ignoring the event)
What is the Self-Expansion Theory
relationships are a good way for us as individuals to grow as people
• Growth can come from relationship, integrating
partner
• Importance of novel and arousing or ‘exciting’
activities: continues self expansion and helps keep relationship interesting
Love and Novel Activities
Novel activities increase…
relationship quality and satisfaction, love, and sex
Two responses to conflict
Forgiveness
Humour
responses to conflict: forgiveness
- Correlations
Correlational link with resolution, satisfaction
Dyadic, longitudinal study suggests conflict reduction
Lack of is a serious problem
responses to conflict: humour
- 3 types of humour
- Attachment styles predicted use & response
Types:
- affiliative: helpful, especially with high distress
- aggressive: worst in response to care seeking
- self-defeating: received poorly with high distress
- Secure attachment tend to use more affiliative humour, and don’t respond as poorly when partners use the other types
- People with anxious/avoidant attachment styles use the other two humours more, and also don’t take it as well when their partner does so in response.
Clinical Psychology
- Currently follows the ________ ________: (5)
- Uses the ____________ language
follows illness ideology
– History of psychodynamic & hospital influence
– concerned with problems (pathology)
– problems are in kind (categorical)
– internal, similar to biology (rather than context)
– role is to diagnose & treat person
- Uses medical language
Explain the Social Construction Approach to Disorders
• These things do not ‘exist’; science does not make them so
• Consider race, gender, class, etc.
• Discussing the values underlying disorders is useful
• Consider culture, power, self-interest
– E.g., homosexuality, paraphilias, previous slide
• Can still use science to study phenomena
Explain the Positive Clinical Psychology Approach
• ‘Problems in living’ (interaction of person,
situation, and culture)
– vs. a purely internal disease.
• Students and teachers vs. patients and doctors
• Prevention & enhancement; not just treatment
• Assess strengths and assets
