Final Exam Flashcards
What are the differences between facts,
theories, and interpretations? Why do
these differences matter?
Fact - empirical
Theory - mathematics behind the theory
Interpretations - philosophical questions about reality
Facts are not the theory nor do they prove the theory but the theory came first and does explain the facts there are alternative theories. There is no real way to know what interpretation is the correct one.
What are the quantum facts?
When an electron gun fires at two split w/o a detector a particle pattern occurs with a detector a wave pattern occurs
Or an experiment with photon splitters and beam combiners again when off wave pattern when on particle pattern
What are electrons? Protons? How do
we produce them?
Particles with a charge can be produced by “electron/proton gun”
What is a particle? What is a wave? How
do they differ?
Wave does not exist at a defined point a particle does
Why is there a concern for reality when it
comes to quantum entities?
Because they appear to be both particles and waves which does not fit our current understanding of reality
What is meant by the “wave effect” and
the “particle effect” in the two-slit
apparatus experimental set-up?
Wave effect has the bar like patterns whereas the particle effect has dots and only one detector goes off at a time
Compare and contrast the differences
between experiments 1, 2, 3, & 4.
1 + 2 two slit experiment 1 off = wave 2 on = particle
3 + 4 same but with beam splitter and combiner
What are the results of these experiments surprising?
Because it sugests not only that at the quantum level particles can be both a wave and a particle additionally that measurement can impact such state
particle v wave mathematics
particle - dropping a bowling ball it deals with a concrete object
wave - not discrete uses different math
If the mathematics for quantum is not
controversial, why is quantum theory so
unusual? What are the minor and the
major issues DeWitt discusses?
The math isn’t controversial because it is correct it is the implications of the theory that are controversial (major)
also instead of providing exact predictions its predictions are probabilistic (minor)
What is the unremarkable fact about
wave mathematics? remarkable
What is the bottom line of these two
facts about wave mathematics?
Waves come in families
any wave can be produced with just those of one family (if certain combination)
quantum system is represented as wave - measurements are associated with a family of waves - predictions about the outcome are arrived at by finding the members of the measurement family that produce the quantum representation
What is meant by the interpretation of
mathematics? Why is this important?
What we take the mathematics to mean about reality
Because it impacts our worldview and is controvertial
What is a wave function
a piece of wave mathematics for a system - usually represents a quantum system
What are the three measurable qualities of quantum entities
position momentum and spin
What does Schrödinger’s equation allow
scientists to do? What is the rough
analog DeWitt draws?
allows predictions of quantum systems over time like newton’s equations do
What is the measurement problem
one aspect of the measurement problem is that technically anything can be used to make measurements
the question then becomes why do quantum entities seem to behave differently when they are measured if it is arbitrary
What is the standard approach to quantum theory
The approach that uses the standard mathematics of quantum theory the “Copenhagen” interpretation
What is a measurement
A way humans gain information about an object notably measurement is dependent on what is of interest to us
Measurement in Newtonian physicis
Taking measurements has no impact on the system
Measurement in Quantum physics
leads to the collapse of the wave function
What is superposition of states
When a wave function has a quantum entity existing in two or more different states such as when a photon hits a beam slitter
What is the projection postulate and what else is it known as?
What does the projection postulate have
to do with superposition and
Schrödinger’s equation?
the projection postulate is that when we make a measurement of a wave function we insert that measurement into the wave function leading to its collapse
it ends the evolution of superposition in Schrodinger’s equation collapsing the wave function
What is the collapse of the wave function
(also referred to as the reduction of the
wave packet)? How does DeWitt decide
to treat this terminology?
It is when the mathematics of the equation cause the quantum entity to no longer exist in a state of superposition
for Dewitt this is understood instrumentally as representing the mathematics
What is a thought experiment
an experiment that is thought out rather than preformed in order to explore a problem (so that we don’t have to kill cats unnecessarily in this case)
What is Schrödinger’s cat? Why is it
worth knowing about?
It demonstrates how a state of superposition could technically move up to a macro level
What are the issues involving instrumentalism/realism or subjectivity/ objectivity with understanding the mathematics of quantum theory with regard to measurement?
How can something subjective (what counts as a measurement) effect something that is supposedly objective (science and the natural world)
What difference, if any, does the
distinction between measurement
contexts and non-measurement contexts
make?
in non-measurement contexts we apply Schrodinger’s equation in measurement contexts we apply the collapse postulate
strange in that this distinction relies on the subjective idea of what constitutes a measurement
What is the distinction between system
and apparatus? What difference, if any, does it make regarding the measurement problem
system - ie the quantum system
apparatus - the thing doing the measuring
why should things be different between micro level and macro level things isn’t this just an arbitrary measurement of size
What role, if any, does universality have
with regard to Schrödinger’s equation
and the measurement problem?
That while other theories had seemed to be universal Schrodinger’s equation only seems to apply at the micro and now Newton’s doesn’t seem to work at the micro level
What is the main difference between
collapse interpretations and noncollapse
interpretations of quantum
theory?
In collapse interpretations - there is no answer as to where the electron is before measurement. Those attributes do not exist prior to measurement
In non-collapse interpretations - there is no collapse and quantum entities do in fact have these things measurable prior to measurement
types of collapse interpretations
shortcomings
types of collapse
mild measurement dependent theories says that wave functions can only occur at the micro/quantum level - measurement problem
moderate - can occur at macro level but unlikely since it would have certainly been measured by then - measurement problem
radical - only a human consciousness counts as measurement - even more strange that human consciousness would be only measurement
What is the Copenhagen or standard interpretation? What are its core tenets and its nontrivial differences among its proponents? Why does it strike many as unusual or counterintuitive?
Copenhagen = collapse interpretations
core tenets - does not have some properties prior to measurement
wave function and its collapse via measurement
disagree over what counts as measurement
What are the main characteristics of
Einstein’s realistic interpretation of
quantum theory? What are its
shortcomings or oddities?
shortcoming - proven wrong
believed there was no wave function that quantum entities have definite aspects they just haven’t been measured yet no collapse
What are the main characteristics of
Bohm’s realistic interpretation of
quantum theory? What are its
shortcomings or oddities?
Quantum entities have a definite position but are guided by a “guide wave” - makes same predictions as normal quantum theory but fit worldview (did I hear Tycho)
but his guidance waves require faster than light influences
Compare and contrast Einstein’s and
Bohm’s interpretations.
both do not involve a wave function bohm’s involves ftl influences Einstein’s does not
Bohm has not been disproven Einsteins has
What is the many-worlds interpretation?
What are its shortcomings or oddities?
the wave function does not collapse every time there is a superposition there is a new reality - this is a very high number of simultaneous realities and is at least hard to comprehend and there is little to suggest it is correct
What does evolution mean in the
broadest sense?
change in a population over time
What does evolution by means of
natural selection mean, according to
Darwin, Wallace, and contemporary
biology?
because of heritable variations and differential fitness just like in artificial selection where people can choose for traits nature can also chose what traits are best but in this case depending on who survives and passes on their genes
What are heritable variations?
there are differences between members of a population and those differences can be passed down
What is differential fitness? What does it
have to do with the struggle for survival
or struggle for existence?
not all members of the population are equally suited to survive and pass down their traits
What is artificial selection? Why does it
matter for evolutionary theory?
artificial selection is the idea that humans select for desirable traits
How has evolutionary theory developed
since Darwin and Wallace?
discovering that there are “units” of heredity known as genes discovered by Mendel’s experiments
the discovery of the structure of DNA
mechanism by which DNA codes for proteins
being able to determine an organisms genetic code
How do biologists understand biological
evolution today?
changes in allele frequencies in a population over time
What is an allele?
a variant of a particular gene
What is gene flow (or migration)? What
role does it play in evolutionary theory?
changes due to breeding with different populations such as due to immigration between isolated communities
it is one of the ways evolution can occur
What is genetic mutation? What role
does it play in evolutionary theory?
genetic mutation is a change in gene due to external factors - chemicals, radiation, others, and errors.
It is one of the ways evolution can occur
What is genetic drift? What role does it
play in evolutionary theory?
changes in the frequency just due to random chance
it is one of the ways evolution can occur
What are the two noteworthy subtypes
of genetic drift?
the bottle neck and the founder effect
bottle neck - a large portion of the population is randomly killed off leaving a smaller group that due to random chance increases and allele or just gives it a small sample size which results in drift (not due to it surviving better)
founder - a small group with an unusual high frequency of an allele founds a new population / colony
What is one of the most fundamental misconceptions about evolutionary theory? What does such a misconception fail to understand with regard to older philosophical/ conceptual facts about the nature of living things?
Why haven’t other organisms evolved to be smart - because smart isn’t necessarily the best
also species do not evolve to survive species survive because they had traits which leads to them evolving (because those who didn’t died)
What are the differences and similarities
between Darwin’s development of his
views on evolution and the development
of Wallace’s views on evolution?
Darwin went on the HMS Beagle saw a lot of species saw the variation between species and the “struggle for existence” (from Malthus on the human population) and came to conclusion
Wallace also went on voyages and came to similar conclusions (he got idea of struggle during a fever)
What is the significance of Darwin’s
Origins? Be sure to consider its genesis,
its reception, and its lasting influence.
Aimed for a wide audience
excellent explanation building on ideas slowly - from artificial to natural selection to evolution
What is the significance of Darwin’s
Origins? Be sure to consider its genesis,
its reception, and its lasting influence.
Aimed for a wide audience
excellent explanation building on ideas slowly - from artificial to natural variation to the struggle for existence to evolution with lots of proof and evidence following
reception - sold very well, that evolution occurred was accepted, how it occurred was rejected many preferred the Lamarkian view (traits gained over life are passed on)
What is the naturalist response to
western religions’ view of creation?
that if one fully accepts natural selection then it leaves no room for God acting in the evolutionary process and there is no reason to believe that humans are special
What is process philosophy? Process
theology?
process philosophy - processes are more fundamental than objects processes are the fundamental constant of reality and objects are only arising out of the processes (rather than processes being the result of objects) - originally by Whitehead
Process theology - God as a apart of the world more specifically as apart of the process (or maybe its sum). God is also important in keeping the universe in balance between chaos and order - originally de Chardin
What is John Haught’s response to
science, especially to Darwin’s theory?
That a belief in a God who plays a role in the evolutionary process is completely compatible with evolution as a world that was just created and then didn’t change would be “boring” and this is more in scope with the greater glory of God
What is the problem of the criterion?
When two sides disagree about what criteria to decide a matter based on.
What is meant by morality being
objectively real? How does taste or color
perception differ?
That it is a part of reality and that by disagreeing with this reality (unlike taste which is subjective) we can be very upset
How does evolution challenge the
objective reality of morality?
It demonstrates that this sense of objectivity is a byproduct of evolution
Does evolution eliminate all senses of
the reality of morality (as well as color
perception)? Why or why not?
Some would argue that this morality is very real (because we are real) but that it is also subjective - just like color it is dependent on who we are as a species.
What is descriptive ethics? What is
normative ethics?
normative ethics - what is right and what is wrong
descriptive ethics - the study of what people believe to be right or wrong
What is the naturalistic fallacy? Does it
apply to all rational inferences? Explain.
Naturalistic fallacy - is does not equal ought - just because something IS a way does not mean that that is the way it OUGHT to be
How could evolutionary considerations
affect ethical inquiry or moral
judgments?
that evolution shows that our moral sentiments are not objective and therefore it calls into question whether we can make moral judgements for sure at all
What is the problem of altruism, from an
evolutionary perspective?
why has altruism occurred if evolution is driven by one’s own survival
What is kin altruism?
kin altruism is when you are altruistic towards family members
What is reciprocal altruism?
being altruistic towards a person and expecting a return
What is the classical prisoner dilemma?
one round of the prisoners dilemma 10,10 13,0 or 3,3
What is the iterative prisoner dilemma?
when many rounds are performed
What are the best strategies for taking
up the iterative prisoner’s dilemma?
tit for tat - always be trusting at first but if trust is broken retaliate
What is the ultimatum game?
$10 propose how to switch it between us 9-1 through 1-9 the other person has the right to refuse and if refused both get nothing
How do people who actually have
played the ultimate game behave?
people usually reject below 30% and usually split somewhat evenly
What is the trust game?
give you some of my money whatever I give you is trippled then you can split it how you will - requires trust to work well
How do people who actually have
played the trust game behave?
most people trust and most people are trustworthy
What effect does oxytocin have on
individuals playing the trust game?
giving people oxytocin substantially increases trust
What are further consequences of
Darwin’s theory for how we think about
our place in the universe?
That we apart of a greater whole one of many interrelated species
What is the organism metaphor of the
universe? Which worldview does it apply
to and why?
In the Aristotelian worldview the universe was viewed as an organism where organs have functions that achieve a goal
What is the machine metaphor of the
universe? Which worldview does it apply
to and why?
In the Newtonian view the parts of the universe interact much like a machine with the various parts interacting - mechanical and mechanistic clear outcomes - interactions only through connections
How great of a threat to the mechanistic worldview is the rejection of absolute space and absolute time in favor of the relativity of spacetime (according to DeWitt at least)? Why?
Dewitt argues it is a peripheral belief as one can still view the universe as interacting in a mechanistic way with its various parts
How great of a threat to the mechanistic worldview is the rejection of locality in favor of nonlocality in light of quantum mechanics (according to DeWitt at least)? Why?
Dewitt argues that this is a more significant difference as action at a distance influences have been shown even in large objects at significant distances when previously we had thought action could not occur at distance and this can’t be confined to the quantum level
How great of a threat is evolutionary
theory to the very human and very
common view that humans are special in
this universe? Why?
Require that we give up the view that humans are special - there is nothing to suggest that we are at the apex of life
What are the implications of
evolutionary theory for traditional
conceptions of human life, such as
religion and ethics?
For religion and ethics it poses a challenge but not necessarily an insurmountable one by suggesting that God may not play the role in creation as it was thought.
For ethics it suggests a lack of objectivity of ethics which may cause the questioning of ethical principles at all.
What do metaphors do for worldviews
and understanding?
a convenient and simple way of summarizing the way the universe works
What is our current situation with regard
to a unifying worldview for our current
science?
There is no single metaphor that is capable of describing our understanding of the world - possibly for good?
What further implications are there for
our understanding of our world and our
place within it, with or without
metaphor?
That new worldviews will likely emerge
