Final exam Flashcards
Skill;
increases intrinsic motivation.
Study: first year, fourth year
there was a significant differences when the read about star fourth year student. First years felt better, because they had potential to change. Graduating students didn’t feel as good because it was too late.
Can I do it?
= efficacy
Narrative—self
= it is a chapter break down of the self. Divide your life in chapters.
Self-schemas:
concept maps of the world, a script of how something is done. Things that are relevant to us. Constructed from past but has aspects of present.
Break up study:
after break up they say self confidence was lower in relationship than they had already said. IT is to protect the self
Stroop Test:
ego depletion, colors and words that don’t match, it tires you out. Automatic and deliberate compete.
Eudiamonic happiness:
meaning, values, how you live your life.
Pollyanna principle:
we perceive things positively by default. Most people rate themselves above average. AS time passes, we see things as more positive.
Grit:
to keep trying, it is persistence that won out.
TED talk:
loneliness: social disconnect, increases early death by 14%, high blood pressure, cholesterol, suppress immune system, as dangerous as cigarettes. If something happens to you, don’t beat yourself up. Think about how you would treat your best friend.
id and superego
**Id and superego don’t know what reality is.
Cognition:
information processing, decision making, memory, problem-solving.
Incongruity
Incongruity: present state, ideal state, they formulate plan to close the gap. “Spring to action”; Test operate test TOTE: thus plan directed behaviour is dynamic, flexible, and corrective motivation energizes the individual.
Discrepancy or incongruity
creates the sense of wanting to change the present state.
2 types discrepancy:
- Discrepancy reduction: discrepancy detecting feedback that underlies plans and corrective motivation. Environment provides feedback on how well you’re doing. Negative feedback loop, something arises and action to fix it reduces discrepancy. Plan based.
- Discrepancy creation: feed-forward system, sets future goal. Goal-setting—proactive,
Difficulty:
goals increase in difficulty, performance increases; linear. Effort to proportion of goal. Difficult goals energize the performer and specific goals direct that energy.
*Problems:
For tasks that are interesting and require creativity or problem-solving, goal setting does not enhance performance. And having too many goals: goal conflict.
Problems:
focusing on the goal or what success would be like didn’t help. Focusing on how to accomplish the goal is better.
Implementation intention 2 things; if-then statements, make goal striving habitual,
- Response that promotes goal attainment. Want A, study group.
- Suitable occasion to initiate that response. A time for studying needs to be decided in advance
2 types expectancy.
- Efficacy: Can I do it, one’s capacity, not ability, but possessing skills, capacity to translate skills into performance,
- Outcome: will it work, given an action will it cause some outcome.
Self-efficacy:
personal history, observations of others who try the act, verbal persuasions, physiological states (racing heart). It affects the choice of activity, and choice of environment, effort, persistence, thinking, decision making, emotional reactions…
BUT: self-efficacy
beliefs can be changed, predicts ways of coping that can be called competent functioning. THUS empowerment is critical, it increases self-efficacy, it can be learned.
Mastery-oriented:
failure doesn’t hurt the self, the harder it gets the harder I try. Failure is constructive feedback.
Learned helplessness 3 things:
- Contingency: behaviour and environment outcome, outcomes random or caused by…
- Cognition: mental events distort objective contingencies and subjective contrôl.
- Behavior : coping behavior,
Learned helplessness 3 deficits :
- Motivational : decrease motivation to cope, why try?
- Learning deficit: pessimistic mindset, interfere with ability to learn new response.
- Emotional deficits: depressive reaction to event that requires high mobilized action.
**Depression
are not more prone to learned helplessness deficits rather it is the individuals who are not depressed who sometimes believe they have more control.
Attribution:
why something happened.
Reactance:
rise from outcome expectancy, rooted in perceived control, before helpless response, enhances performance.
Utility value:
perception of usefulness of the activity. *Personal relevance of course material.
self
Self: something that initiates action (the I), OR it is an object to be perceived (Me).
self-esteem
Self-esteem: not evidence that it causes anything. It is an effect. It is a score card. The benefit is it protects against negative affect.
Self-concept:
constructed from experiences and reflections of experiences. Collection of domain-specific self-schemas.
Self-schema:
domain specific, learned from past. I’m shy in blank situation…. Direct behavior, and feedsback into im shy in blank situation. Discrepant feedback rarely changes a stable self-schema.
Self-verification crisis:
self-concept is moderate: self-discrepant feedback shakes self-concept, thus experience self-verification crisis. Seeks additional feedback. Could lower self-concept certainty, thus the only path to self-concept change is from low self-concept certainty.
Self schema change:
self-concept must be low, and self-discrepant feedback must be strong.
*Self-verification
is a ubiquitous motivation within the self-concept.
possible selves
Possible selves: self as dynamic entity with a past, present and future.
Identity:
one’s place in society, psychologically it is whether that role or social position or social description feels right. How the self relates to society. Identity steers the person’s behavior.
agency
Agency: self as action and development from within as innate processes and motivations.
differentiation
Differentiation: creates complex self. Eg. Not all things of a group are alike.
Integration:
synthesizes emerging complexity into coherent whole.
Internalization:
desire for meaningful relationships, relatedness, interact with social world, competence.
True self:
in touch with inner experience. Mindful. False self is one where the inner experience is ignored.
Radish study:
depletion of self-control, there is a limit to it. 2 tasks involving self-control are not completed to the same level. BC self-control depletes glucose, but not if person is first placed in positive mood.
brain
20% glucose use
emotion
Emotion: multidimensional, subjective, biological, purposive and expressive. Emotions energize behavior, and they are a feedback system of how well something is going.
Emotion two-systems view:
cognition and biology cause emotion. Biological system react automatically, sub-cortical brain. Cognition is an experience based system.
Emotions end:
removal of event, and coping behavior works.
Biological basic emotions:
small number, universal, products of evolution, automatic changes occur,
Cognitive emotion perspective:
humans have more than a few emotions, several emotions from one biological reaction, cognitive activity before emotion, emotions from meaning of situation,
Basic emotion:
facial expression, pattern of physiology, automatic, rapid, brief; interest, joy, sadness, anger, disgust, and fear.
Emotion schema:
dynamic interplay among basic emotions, cognitive appraisals and high order cognition.
Affect:
ever present stream of moods,
Mood;
way of feeling existing as an aftereffect. Mental state, no object of focus. *Valence (pleasure) and arousal.
affect
*Positive affect low in morning. Can be instigated by event, lasts 20min, happy people make decisions to extend this. PA facilitates willingness to help, flexibility,
Negative affect: low and stable. Stop system.
The first theory of emotion, the James–Lange theory,
different emotions each had unique bodily reactions associated with them; The sequence of events seems to be stimulus → emotion → bodily reaction
pattern of emotional behavior:
(1) a behavioral approach system that readies the animal to seek out and interact with attractive environmental opportunities, (2) a fight-or-flight system (3) a behavioral inhibition system freeze in the face of aversive events. * four emotions of joy, fear, rage, and anxiety
facial feedback hypothesis (FFH),
(1) movements of the facial musculature, (2) changes in facial temperature, and (3) changes in glandular activity in the facial skin.
The motivational reflex model
states that any stimulus is automatically categorized as either good or bad
primary appraisals
ask whether one’s physical or psychological well-being, goals and financial status, or interpersonal relationships are at stake during a particular encounter.
Secondary appraisal
which occurs after some reflection, involves the person’s assessment for coping with the possible benefit, harm, or threat
Self/Norm compatibility
is an evaluation of how compatible versus incompatible the event is with one’s self-concept or personal standards.
Appraisals;
Novelty is detection of a change in the environment. Agency is an attribution of the cause of the event,
the appraisal theory of emotion
different emotions emerge from the same event. Different people appraise same thing differently, and differently at two different times.
Emotion knowledge
emotional discrete categories (anger versus fear) and to differentiate one basic emotion various shades (anger versus irritation, frustration, hostility, and rage)
three conclusions from research on the need hierarchy are to
Reject the five-level hierarchy. Collapse the physiological, safety, belongingness, and esteem needs into the single category of deficiency needs. Hypothesize a simplified, two-level hierarchy distinguishing only between deficiency and growth needs.
Rogers
recognized the existence of these sort of individual motives, but he emphatically stressed the holistic proposition that all human needs serve the collective purpose of maintaining, enhancing, and actualizing the person.
organismic valuing process,
The actualization tendency’s “forward thrust of life” has a partner.
Organismic: an inherent capacity to judge for oneself whether a specific experience promotes or interferes with growth
Rogers
viewed the child’s movement toward conditions of worth and away from organismic valuing as antithetical to the development of the actualizing and self-actualizing tendencies. When the developing individual adheres to conditions of worth, he moves farther away from an inherent ability to make the behavioral choices necessary to actualize the self and therefore becomes increasingly vulnerable to tension, conflict, and maladjustment
The way not to interfere with organismic valuing is to provide
“unconditional positive regard,” rather than the “conditional positive regard” that emanates from conditions of worth.
Mental health and personal growth
occur only when the actualizing tendency and the self-actualizing tendency are in synchronization and when all experiences are evaluated within an internal frame of reference
conditional regard
is making one’s attention, affection, and love depend on the other person doing what you demand that they do
Neurotic perfectionism
grows out of childhood experiences with disapproving parents whose love is conditional on how well the child behaves and performs
enculturation
Evil’s cause seems to have its origin in enculturation, rather than in human nature.
Existentialism
is the study of the isolation and meaninglessness of the individual in an indifferent universe.
Psychoanalysis
is deterministic in that it holds that the ultimate cause of motivation and behavior derives from biologically endowed and socially acquired impulses that determine our desires, thoughts,
psychoanalytic and psychodynamic
psychoanalytic refers to practitioners who remain committed to most traditional Freudian principles. Psychodynamic, however, refers more broadly to the study of dynamic unconscious mental processes
core postulates ego development
- The Unconscious. Much of mental life is unconscious.
- Psychodynamics. Conscious and unconscious mental processes operate in parallel and in conflict with one another.
- Ego Development. Healthy development involves moving from an immature, socially dependent personality to one that is more mature and interdependent with others.
- Object Relations Theory. Mental representations of self and others form in childhood that guide the person’s later social motivations and relationships.
The conscious
(i.e., short-term memory, consciousness) includes all the thoughts, feelings, sensations, memories, and experiences that a person is aware of at any given moment in time.
The preconscious
stores all the thoughts, feelings, and memories that are absent from immediate consciousness but can be retrieved into consciousness with a little prompting (e.g., you are aware of but are not currently thinking about your name or what color ink these words are printed in).
The unconscious
is the mental storehouse of inaccessible instinctual impulses, repressed experiences, childhood (before language) memories, and strong but unfulfilled wishes and desires.
So, in brief, System 1 is “intuitive judgment,” while System 2 is “deliberate decision-making.”
The conscious mind is an effortful, deliberate, and slow system; the unconscious mind—the adaptive unconscious—is an automatic, instantaneous, and fast system
psychodynamics
excitation versus inhibition, and cathexis (sexual attraction) versus anticathexis (guilt). This clashing of forces is what is meant by the term psychodynamics
** EGO development
- (infantile) symbiotic stage, the ego is overwhelmed by impulses.
- impulsive stage, external forces (parental constraints, rules), curb impulses and desires. Self-control emerges when the child first anticipates consequences
- conformist stage, the ego internalizes group-accepted rules, and the anxiety of group disapproval becomes a potent counterforce against one’s impulses. The conscience functions as a set of internal standards to curb and counter impulses. The autonomous ego is one in which thoughts, plans, goals, and behaviors originate from within the ego and its resources, rather than from id impulses. The autonomous ego is self-motivating and self-regulating.
self-expansion model
Aronandcolleagues(2001)arguethatwhenwehave closerelationships(platonicincluded)ouridentities canoverlap.Theycallthisphenomenon“includingthe otherintheself”(acomponentofself‐expansion model)
An individual with mastery beliefs
iscapableofhandlingfeedbackandconstructiveinformatio
Expectancy‐value models argue that
anindividual’smotivationlevel dependsontwofactors: Howattainableand Thevalueoftheincentive(i.e.,how appealingtheincentive)
William James proposed that the self refers to two parts the “I” (agent self) and the “me” (object self)
“I”selfisthesubjectiveself(i.e.,self‐awareness)or theselfthatexperiences(i.e.,thelittlepersonin yourheador“homunculus”whoexperiencesyour lifeandmakesyourdecisions) Streamofconsciousness
“me”selfistheobjectiveselforthedescriptiveself. Thesearethecollectionofstatementsthat contributetoyourdescriptionofyourself(i.e.,“Iam tall,”“Iamfunnyandsmart”etc.).The“me”also consistofourlovedonesandone’spossessions
McAdams (1995) argued that the self is composed of three levels with each level increasing in depth of knowledge of the person
I–dispositionalselforbroaddescriptionoftheself (i.e.,personalitytraits)
II–personal concerns(e.g.,Goals,motives,virtues, copingstrategies,defensemechanisms)
III–narrative self–this istheintegrationofthe firsttwolevelsintoalifestory(e.g.,self‐history). Thislevelgivespeopleabetterunderstandingof oneselfandone’spositionintheworld
Cannon and Bard argue
thattheprocessingofemotionsand arousaloccurinthesamemomentbutaftertheexperienceof theemotionstimuli. E.g.,“Thebearmakesmetremble andfeelafraid.”
Theyarguethattheemotionalstimuli activatesthethalamus(responsiblefor senses).Whenthethalamusisactivated itthenactivates Thecortex(emotionprocessing–feelingfear) Thehypothalamus(responsibleforarousal) Theautonomicnervoussystem(arousal– heart rate,heavybreathing)
Schachterand Singer argue
thatemotionhastwoparts:aphysiologicalcomponentandacognitivelabe Whenanemotionalstimulusoccurs,ittriggersarousaland labellingofemotion,thentheemotionisexperienced.
Thephysiologicalarousalcanbe similaracrossmanyemotions.
Thecognitivelabelisdifferent foreveryemotion
emotion intelligence
EIhasfourcomponents Perceivingemotions–how wellsomeonerecognizehowyouand othersarefeeling Facilitatethought–emotions guideandprioritizethinking Understandingemotions–knowingthecomplexityofemotions (associationwithexperiences)andthetransitionacross emotions Managingemotions–the abilitytobeopentoandcontrol emotions
Lazarus Appraisal Theory of Emotion
Good appraisals labeled as several types of benefit positive emotions Bad appraisals labeled as several types of harm negative emotions
anxiety
Three types: Objective (reality) anxiety occurs in response to real, external threat to a person (e.g., life threatening experience)
Neurotic anxiety occurs when there is direct conflict between id and ego (e.g., saying/doing something “stupid” on a first date)
Moral anxiety is caused by conflict between ego and superego (e.g., Helloooo Perfectionism! –unrealistic standards)
priming
Priming the process which activates specific schemas in people increase how accessible these schemas are.
Recent studies suggest priming concepts or social categories can alter people’s own behaviors as well as their social judgments E.g., priming elderly E.g., priming (physical) warmth rate someone as having a ‘warm’ personalit
3 motives
power, intimacy and achievement
Ego Defense Mechanisms
- Denial
- Fantasy
- Projection; Assigning one’s own unacceptable desire or impulse to someone else.
- Displacement; Anxiety released onto a substitute object when the actual source is powerful.
- Identification; Taking on the characteristics of someone viewed as successful.
- Regression
- Reaction formation; Expressing the strong opposite of one’s true feelings or motives.
- Rationalization
- Anticipation
- Humor
- Sublimation
