Final Exam Flashcards
cell membrane
- forms outer boundary of the cell
- determines what substances enter and exit cell
- has a double layer of phospholipids containing proteins that function as membrane channels, carrier and receptor molecules, enzymes, and structural components of membrane.
nucleus
- surrounded by a double membrane with pores.
- contains chromatin (DNA)
- contains nucleolus
ribosome
site of protein synthesis
- can be attached to endoplasmic reticulum or free within cytoplasm
endoplasmic reticulum
- network of connecting sacs and canals
- carry substances through the cytoplasm
- rough er: has ribosomes, site of protein synthesis
- smooth er: no ribosomes, site of lipid synthesis
Golgi appartatus
collection of membranous sacs
- collect, modify, package, and distribute proteins and lipids produced by ER
mitochondria
site of atp production
lysosomes
membrane sacs containing digestive enzymes
-break down unwanted substances
secretory vesicles
carry substances from the Golgi apparatus to the cell membrane where the vesicle contents are released
cytoskeleton
- supports the cytoplasm and organelles.
- involved with movement of material within the cell and the cell itself.
cilia
fine, hair like extensions that move substances over the cell surface
flagella
longer than cilia used to propel the cell.
microvilli
increase surface area of the cell and aid in absorption
epithelial tissue
-forms a protective covering (lines mouth to prevent abrasion) -barriers (skin prevents h2o loss) -permitting passage of substance (diffusion of o2 and co2 in lungs, nephron in kidneys) -secreting (sweat gland, mucous gland) -absorbing (lining of small intestine)
Long bone
most of arm and leg bones.
diaphysis of long bone
shaft - compact bone surrounding inner cavity
medullary cavity of long bone
contains yellow marrow
epiphysis of long bone
spongey bone surround by compact bone
articular cartilage of long bone
surrounds epiphysis
spinal column
- made up of vertebrae separated from each other by intervertebral disks
- cervical (5), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacrum (pelvic girdle, 5), coccyx (tailbone, 4)
body of spinal cord
weight bearing portion
arch of spinal cord
surrounds vertebral foramen
transverse processes of spinal cord
extend laterally from side of arch
spinnous process of spinal cord
projects dorsally
foramen of spinal cord
vertebral and intervertebral (where nerves run through spinal cord)
what do bones produce
red marrow (manufactures blood cells), yellow marrow (produces fat)
gliding joint
bone surfaces slide over one another. (wrist and ankle)
hinge joint
movement in one direction (knees, elbows, fingers)
pivot joint
rotation around length of bone, (between 1st and 2nd cervical vertebrae)
condyloid joint
movement in 2 directions (between metacarpal and phalanx of finger)
saddle joint
like condyloid but deeper articulating surfaces (between wrist and thumb-circle thumb)
ball-and-socket joint
movement in many directions around central point (shoulder and hip joint)
tendons
attach muscle to bone
ligament
attaches bone to bone
smooth muscle
- makes up walls of hollow body organs, respiratory passageways, and blood vessels
- Involuntary movement
- stimulated by nerve impluses, hormones
- cell: tapered ends, single nucleus, no stripes
muscles of respiration
diaphragm, intercostal muscles
actin
thin myofilaments (protein fibres)
myosin
thick myofilaments (protein fibres)
muscle contraction
myosin attaches to actin by cross bridge and pulls the actin filaments together
- calcium transportation
- lots of o2 is needed
connective tissue
supports and forms framework
-has specialized proteins.
acts as a membrane, supports movement of bone and cartilage, (stores, cushions, and insults fat), transports blood, protects immune system and bones.
cardiac muscle
involuntary movement (heart wall) - single nucleus, striped, controlled by autonomic nervous system
skeletal muscle
voluntary (conscious control)
- attach to bones by tendons
- cell: long, multiple nuclei, heavily striped
- stimulated by somatic nervous system
cardiac output
volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one min (mL/min)
stroke volume
volume of blood pumped from each ventricle with each heart beat (mL/beat)
cardiac reserve
difference between resting heart rate and hearts maximum capacity for pumping blood
influences on heart rate
nervous system, hormones and internal environment
medulla oblongata
In brainstem
-controls heart beat
bradycardia
heart rate is less than 60 bpm
tachycardia
heart rate is more than 100 bpm
sinus arrhythmia
variation on HR caused by breathing
systolic pressure
normal -120 mmHg
heart contraction
diastolic pressure
heart relaxation
normal: 80 mmHg
blood plasma
91% water, 8% plasma proteins, 1%(glucose, amino acids, lipids….)
platelet
smallest formed elements, essential for preventing blood loss(clotting), form a platelet plug at site of injury (which clots)
type a blood
a antigens and b antibodies
type b blood
b antigens and a antibodies
type ab blood
both a and b antigens, no antibodies.
type O blood
neither a or b antigens, has both a and b antibodies.
arteries
carry blood away from heart.
-thick muscular walls.
arterioles
thinner walls than arteries
veins
carry blood to the heart. thinner and less elasticity than arteries.
- one way valves
venules
smaller than vein
respiration
- ventilation (breathing) - air in and out of lungs
- external gas exchange - between lungs and blood
- transport of O2 and CO2 in blood
- internal gas exchange - between blood and tissues
gastric juice
stimulated in response to stimulation from autonomic nervous system
-Is a combo of mucus(protects), hydrochloric acid(kills bacteria), pepsinogen(breaks down protein)
large intestine
absorbs: vit c and b (water), (a,d,e,k -fat), and water
bile
emulsifies fats by the gallbladder once chyme enters the duodenum
pancreas
behind stomach
-has enzymes that digest fats. enzymes stimulated by CCK hormone
lacteals
absorb fatty acids
function of liver
synthesizes bile and plasma protein, nutrient storage and breakdown, breakdown of old RBC’s and toxins, activates vitamin d
blood enters the nephron through the….
glomerulus. other substances are pushed through to the bowmans capsule
what is the urinary bladder lined with?
transitional epithelium to stretch. has rugae(folds)
nitrogenous wastes
urea, uric acid
urine formation
blood leaves the afferent arteriole into glomerulus(filtration), then substances move from nephron back to blood through the proximal convoluted tubule and loop of Henle (reabsorption), movement of substances from blood into nephron through distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct(secretion)
spleen
largest amount of lymphatic tissue
- macrophages detect and get rid of foreign substances in blood
- destroy old RBC’s
- acts a a resevior for blood
lymph
water and substances found in blood plasma that used to be interstitial fluid but once it enters lymphatic vessels changes to lymph.
b cells
bind to foreign antigens and produce antibodies to fight it off
memory b cells
responsible for response when antigen enters body second time . fast antibody production
cytotoxic t cells
enzymes to destroy cells with foreign antigens and cancer cells
helper t cells
releases cytokines to help other cells (t, c, macrophages)
regulatory t cells
inhibit b and T cells after antigens are destroyed
TSH
stimulates release of thyroid hormone from thyroid, in the anterior pituitary.
anterior pituitary
makes it own hormones and controlled by hormones from hypothalamus
posterior pituitary
stores hormones made in hypothalamus then released when needed.
ACTH
increase release of cortisol from adrenal cortex. made in anterior pit
FSH
stimulates follicle maturation and estrogen secretion, sperm production.made in anterior pit.
LH
made in anterior pit. induces ovulation and secretion of estrogen and progesterone.
Prolactin
made in anterior pit. stimulates milk production and release.
GH (growth)
made in anterior pit. stimulates growth, cell repair, metabolism, stimulates immune system.
ADH
secreted by posterior pit. released when low blood volume, promotes reabsorption of water from kidneys, decreasing water excretion, increased BP.
oxytocin
secreted by posterior pit. uterine contraction and milk release.
epinephrine and norepinephrine
secreted by adrenal gland. stress ‘fight or flight’ - adrenaline and noradrenaline. stimulated by sympathetic nervous system
aldosterone
secreted by adrenal gland. regulates electrolyte balance in blood
cortisol
secreted by adrenal gland. raise glucose levels in blood by breaking down proteins and lipds. suppress inflammatory response, stimulated by ACTH
androgens
secreted by adrenal gland. sex hormones, stimulate development of sex characteristics. secreted in small amounts
t3 and t4
secreted by thyroid glands. regulate metabolism. activated by TSH from anterior pit.
calcitonin
secreted by thyroid gland. when blood calcium is high-lowers it by depositing calcium in bone tissue and inhibiting osteoclasts
PTH
secreted by parathyroid. raises blood calcium when not enough. promotes calcium release from bones tissue (osteoclasts) and causes kidney to conserve calcium
glucagon
secreted by pancreas. released in response to low blood glucose levels. target tissue is liver.
insulin
secreted by pancreas. high blood glucose levels, gets rid of glucose. helps liver make glycogen. digestion. stops us from feeling hungry.
testosterone
produced in testes. develops male sex organs and secondary sex characteristics
estrogen
secreted by ovaries. develops female sex organs and secondary sex characteristics. growth of uterus and mammary glands.
progesterone
secreted by ovaries. assists in normal development of pregnancy. maintains lining of uterus and supresses contractions
HCG
secreted by placenta. maintains uterine wall until placenta drops.
HPL
secreted by placenta. causes changes in uterine lining, maintains pregnancy and lactation
thymosin
secreted by thymus gland. stimulates maturation of t cells
melatonin
secreted by pineal gland. produced during dark -Influences sleep pattern. plays role in onset of puberty.
dendrites
conduct impulses toward the cell body. receptor detect stimuli
cell body
contains nucleus and cellular organelles
axon
conduct nerve impulses away from cell body
somatic nervous system
voluntary (skeletal muscle)
autonomic nervous system
involuntary and contains sympathetic (stress-epinepphrine&norepinephrine) and parasympathetic (rest-acetylcholine)
norepinephrine
involved in autonomic nervous system (fight or flight)
acetylcholine
muscle contraction, excitatory actions for cognition, memory and arousal
reflex arc
- receptor cell that detects a stimulus
- sensory neuron transmits impulses to CNS
- Interneuron transmits impulses and formulates response.
- Motor neuron transmits impulses from interneuron to effector.
- Effector: receiver of impulse outside the CNS that carries out a response.
sensory neuron
transmits impulses to CNS
motor neuron
transmits impulses from interneuron to effector.
spinal nerves
31 pairs
- mixed of sensory and motor neurons.
- attach to spinal cord by 2 roots: dorsal (sensory enter) and ventral (motor neurons exit)
dura mater of meninges
outer layer, thickest, fused to cranium.
- has dural sinuses which drain venous blood from brain.
arachnoid mater of meninges
dedicated with cobwebby fibres that attach to the inner layer (Pia).
- has subarachnoid space which allows for flow of cerebrospinal fluid
Pia mater of meninges
inner layer, surrounds brain, and brings nutrients and o2 to the brain.
epidermis
top layer of epithelial cells
dermis
thick connective tissue layer bellow the epidermis and above the hypodermis. contain blood vessels, nerve endings, oil gland, sweat glands, and hair follicles.
hypodermis (subcataneous)
loose connective tissue that connects skin to muscle and bone and contains much of the bodys stored fat. connects dermis and epidermis to underlying muscles.
melanin
produced by melanocytes
- found in skin, hair, eyes
- protects against UV radiation
- darker skin = more melanin
hemoglobin
pigment in red blood cells
carotene
pigment related to vitamin a, found in fatty tissue.
sweat glands
coiled tubular structures in the dermis and hypodermis
- end in a pore on skin surface
- function: cool body and remove wastes.
- two main types: eccrine and apocrine
eccrine glands
sweat glands found all over body’s pores.
-release sweat -water and wastes
apocrine glands
sweat glands found in armpits and groin
- start secreting at puberty
- release cellular material
- body odour occurs from bacteria break down.
ceruminous gland
modified sweat gland
- makes ear wax
ciliary gland
modified sweat gland
-lubricates eyes with tears
mammary glands
modified sweat gland.
-makes milk
sebaceous gland
oil gland
- open into hair follicles
- create sebum which:
- lubricates skin and hair
- production increases during puberty
nail
grow from nail root
- made up of epidermal cells with keratin (Harden)
- nail bed is pink because close to capillary bed
lunula
white moon on the nail bed
functions of skin
protection against infection, dehydration, regulation of body temp, collection of sensory info, absorption of substances, elimination of wastes, vit D production.
olfaction
sense of smell
- impulses are carried into the olfactory bulb and along the olfactory nerve to olfactory centre in the temporal cortex of the brain for interpretation.
fibrous tunic
outer layer of the eye.
-Includes sclera, cornea, conjunctivitis
vascular tunic
middle layer of eye
- includes: choroid, iris, pupil, lens, ciliary muscle.
nervous tunic
inner layer of eye
- includes retina and macula lutea
external ear
hearing
- includes auricle and external auditory meatus
- ends at eardrum (tympanic membrane)
pathway of equilibrium
movement of head, stimulates equilibrium receptors in the inner ear, vestibular nerve fibres join with cochlear nerve fibres, become vestibulocochlear nerve.
static equilibrium
sense of moving in a straight line
dynamic equilibrium
sense of direction in space
semicircular canals
3 tubes containing receptors for equillibrium
uterus
provides protection, nutrition, and waste removal for the embryo.
composed of top area, body and cervix.
3 layers - perimetrium, myometrium, endometrium
perimetrium
outer serous membrane of the uterus
myometrium
thick smooth muscle of the uterus
endometrium
mucous membrane of uterus
perineum
pelvic floor area between vagina and anus
FSH during menstrual cycle
- on day 5, it stimulates several ovarian follicles in the ovary to mature.
- in the luteal phase, (day 15-28). estrogen and progesterone is released which inhibits the release of FSH (negative feedback loop)
- day 1-7, lack of estrogen releases FSH.
menstrual phase
day 1-7 in menstrual cycle,
- if no fertilization corpus lute stop releasing estrogen and progesterone. causing endometrium to break away from uterus (menstruation)
- lack of estrogen = FSH production
follicular phase
day 7-13 in menstrual cycle
-day 5 FSH stimulates follicles to mature. follicle releases estrogen which thickens the endometrium and prepares uterus for implantation of fertilized egg. stops FSH stimulates LH.
ovulation phase
day 14 of menstrual cycle.
- increase estrogen-rises LH- follicle ruptures. this discharges mature egg cell into Fallopian tube.
follicle becomes corpus luteum- releases estrogen and progesterone to thicken endometrium
luteal phase
day 15-28 of menstrual cycle, egg makes its way through Fallopian tube to uterus. estrogen and progesterone released. thickening of endometrium. inhibits release of FSH and LH.
semen
mix of sperm and fluid from accessory glands.
-functions: nourish sperm, tranport sperm, neutralize acidity, lubricate during intercourse, prevent infection.
acrosome of sperm
contains enzyme to penetrate egg
head of sperm
contains nucleus with 23 chromosomes
mid piece of sperm
contains many mitochondria
flagellum of sperm
propels sperm forward
seminiferous tubules
hollow tubes that produce sperm
interstitial cells
produce testosterone
epididymis
connects to seminiferous tubules
- sperm mature for a few days and become able to move.
vas deferens
carries sperm from epididymis
ejaculatory duct
seminal vesicle joins vas deferens, moves through prostate to urethra
seminal vesicles
sugar, enzymes, prostaglandins
prostate gland
alkaline secretion
aids sperm mobility
bulbouretheral gland
mucus that cleans and lubricates urethra
scrotum
outer sac that holds the testes
urethra
carries urine and semen
prepuce
foreskin
hCG hormone
- released by embryonic cells after implantation
- stimulates corpus luteum to continue producing progesterone to maintain endometrium and estrogen to enlarge uterus and breasts.
- Inhibits FSH and LH
hPL
stimulates breast growth.
regulates maternal blood nutrient levels to provide for fetus.
relaxin
towards end of pregnancy.
softens cervix
relaxes sacral joint and pubic symphysis
placenta
forms at second week. separates maternal and fetal blood. provides nutrition, respiration and excretion for fetus.
umbilical cord
has 2 arteries (CO2) and 1 vein (O2)
amniotic membrane/sac
fluid filled sac around embryo
amniotic fluid
provides protection, maintains temperature, movement, musculoskeletal development, fluid source.
umbilical vein
brings o2 blood from placenta to vena cava and in right atrium
umbilical artery
helps co2 blood return to the placenta
pathway of fetal blood…..
bypasses lungs through foramen oval to left atrium or through pulmonary trunk to ductus arterioles to aorta.
causes of contractions
- stretched uterus stimulates prostaglandins
- pressure on cervix stimulates oxytocin
- cortisol from fetus adrenal cortex inhibits mothers progesterone.
parturition
(birth)
contractions, baby head moves down, increased uterine contractions, cervix softens and gradually dialates.
chromosomes
all human cells, except gametes have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs one from father one from mother.)
- one chromosome pair determines sex
autosomes
other 22 pairs that dont determine sex
genes
segments of DNA along chromosomes in the nucleus
- carries code for a specific trait.
daughter cells
cells that have duplicate dna after they have divided.
alleles
genes that are in a pair and on a specific part of the chromosome
dominant gene
an allele that is expressed
received gene
an allele whose trait is hidden
heterozygous
alleles for a trait are different (1 dominant, 1 recessive)
homozygous
alleles for a trait are the same (both dominant and both recessive)
carrier
doesn’t show trait but has recessive gene for that trait
embryonic phase
week 3-8
all organs and structures are established and most susceptible to damage.
heart is beating at wk 4
fetal phase
9th week to birth
germinal phase
first phase. 0-2 weeks
prolaction
stimulates milk production
oxytocin
stimulates milk let down
colostrum
first 3 days.
rich in immunoglobulins, proteins, vitamins and minerals
transitional milk
made after the colostrum
mature milk
after 2 weeks
- thin and bluish in color
- lower immunoglobins and protein, high lactose, fats and calories.
brainstem
connects spinal cord to brain
-controls primitive life sustaining processes
reticular formation
central core of brainstem
-regulates consciousness (wakes you up in the morning)
medulla oblongata
- In brainstem, below pons.
- controls reflexes, respiratory center, cardiac centre, vasomotor center (blood).
pons
in brainstem
relays info between cerebrum and cerebellum
- part of the respiratory center
midbrain
in brainstem
- relay center for auditory and visual reflexes(turning towards a loud noise)
- pathway between cerebrum and spinal cord.
cerebellum
little brain
controls balance, muscle tone, coordination of fine movements. allows us to learn complex movements
diencephalon
includes hypothalamus, thalamus, pineal gland, and pituitary gland.
- plays a vital role in conscious and unconscious sensory info and motor commands
hypothalamus
in diencephalon located below the thalamus maintains homeostasis emotional responses controls release of hormone by pituitary gland
pituitary gland
in diencephalon
attached to hypothalamus
releases hormones
thalamus
in diencephalon
located between cerebrum and hypothalamus
filters and sends info to cerebrum
associates sensation into emotion
pineal gland
in diencephalon
located behind the thalamus
releases melatonin in response to the amount of light
keeps our body clock regulated
cerebrum
has hemispheres divived by fissures.
has gyri (ridges)
sulci (grooves)
cerebral cortex
-knowledge, memory, intellect, judgement, consciousness, sensations, movement.
