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Biology of Fishes > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the defining characteristics of a fish?

A

Aquatic vertebrates that are usually poikilothermic with gills and limbs in the form of fins

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2
Q

Approximately how many species of fishes are there?

A

~34,500 species

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3
Q

What percentage of fish species are marine vs. freshwater?

A

51% marine and 48% freshwater

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4
Q

In terms of evolutionary history, approximately when did the first fishes appear?

A

~500 million years ago

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5
Q

How are antarctic fishes adapted to life in freezing waters?

A

Their blood contains anti-freeze instead of hemoglobin

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6
Q

Define taxonomy

A

The science of naming, delimiting, and classifying organisms

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7
Q

Define systematics

A

Determining the relationships among organisms

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8
Q

What do modern taxonomists do?

A

They describe species, name species, delimit/diagnose species, create and use tools to identify species (ex. identification keys), and categorize species

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9
Q

What theoretical questions make up the species problem? (4)

A

Are species real or artificial? When is speciation complete? Will a single theory on species work for all forms of life? How do we accommodate exceptions to general species concepts?

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10
Q

What operational/applied questions make up the species problem? (2)

A

How can taxonomists actually apply species concepts of a case by case basis? Are the best theoretical concepts easy to apply in practice?

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11
Q

What is allopatric speciation?

A

A physical barrier is formed that separates a population, and over time, the two become different species

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12
Q

What is peripatric speciation?

A

A group of a population enters a new, isolated niche, and develops into a new species to adapt to said niche

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13
Q

What is parapatric speciation?

A

A group of a population enters an adjacent niche and adapts to fit said niche, becoming a separate species

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14
Q

What is sympatric speciation?

A

Genetic polymorphism, over time, leads to a subgroup within a population that eventually becomes so different from the original population that it becomes its own species

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15
Q

Define morphospecies

A

“a community… whose distinctive morphological characters are, in the opinion of a competent systematist, sufficiently definite to entitle it, or them to a specific name.” For example, dog breeds. Breeds, though morphologically diverse enough to warrant different names, can still interbreed and produce fertile offspring, making them still one species

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16
Q

How does the biological species concept define a species?

A

Groups of actually or potentially interbreeding populations which are reproductively/genetically isolated from other such groups

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17
Q

How does the evolutionary species concept define a species?

A

A single lineage of ancestor-descendant populations which maintains its identity from other such lineages and which has its own evolutionary tendencies and historical fate

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18
Q

How does the phylogenetic species concept define a species?

A

An irreducible group whose members are descended from a common ancestor and who all possess a certain number of defining, or derived, traits

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19
Q

What is “lumping” in taxonomy?

A

When several names apply to one species and they need to be “lumped” together

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20
Q

What is “splitting” in taxonomy?

A

When one name applies to several species and they need to be “split” and renamed

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21
Q

What are the “movers and shakers” in taxonomy?

A

When taxa are moved to different groups, “shaking up” classification

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22
Q

Define artificial classification

A

An arrangement based on superficial characteristics, and not expressing the true natural relationships between species

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23
Q

Define natural classification

A

Classification that best represents evolutionary history of an organism and its relatives

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24
Q

Define phenetics and list the pros and cons

A

Classification based on overall similarity with equal weighting of all characteristics. Pro: reduces subjectivity. Cons: ignores evolution, particularly convergence and parallelism

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25
Q

Define cladistics

A

Classification based upon recency of common descent and uses only apomorphies to classify groups

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26
Q

Define apomorphies

A

Recent derived characteristics

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27
Q

Define plesiomorphies

A

Ancestral or primitive characteristics

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28
Q

Define synapomorphies

A

Shared derived characteristics, useful for arranging branches on a tree

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29
Q

Define autapomorphies

A

Unique derived characteristics, useful for distinguishing a branch, but not for grouping branches

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30
Q

Define symplesiomorphies

A

Shared ancestral characteristics, tell us nothing about the relationships within a group that possess the character

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31
Q

Define homoplasy

A

Convergent evolution. A character shared by a set of species but not present in their common ancestor. Separately evolved and not indicative of relationships.

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32
Q

Define cladogram

A

Branching diagram that links organisms based on common ancestry

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33
Q

Define a monophyletic group

A

Also called a clade. A natural group. Includes a most recent common ancestor plus all of its descendants.

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34
Q

Define a paraphyletic group

A

Also called a grade. Not a natural group. Includes a most recent common ancestor plus only some of its descendants.

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35
Q

Define a polyphyletic group

A

Not a natural group. A group that excludes the last common ancestor of all its members

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36
Q

What is parsimony criterion?

A

When choosing among competing hypotheses, we should accept the one that explains the data most simply and efficiently

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37
Q

Define meristic characters

A

Counts of structures

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38
Q

Define morphometric characters

A

Measurable characters

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39
Q

Define anatomical characters

A

Body structures such as skeletal structures, branches of blood vessels, or musculature

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40
Q

What are the 6 basic body plans?

A

Rover-predator, lie-in-wait predator, surface oriented, bottom dwellers, deep-bodied fishes, and eel-like fishes

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41
Q

What are the characteristics of the rover-predator body plan?

A

A fusiform (streamlined) body, flattened head, terminal mouth, narrow caudal peduncle, forked tail, and evenly distributed fins. These fishes are constantly moving and capture prey by pursuit.

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42
Q

What are the characteristics of the lie-in-wait predator body plan?

A

A fusiform and elongated body, flattened head, large eyes, large mouth with large teeth, a posterior dorsal fin, and a large amount of thrust for high speed acceleration

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43
Q

What are the characteristics of the surface oriented body plan?

A

Upward-pointing mouth, dorso-ventrally flattened, and a posterior dorsal fin. These fishes capture prey near the surface and can often take in oxygen from the air.

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44
Q

What are the characteristics of the bottom-dweller body plan?

A

Lots of variety, often with a reduced swim bladder, and often flattened. There are 5 sub-types.

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45
Q

What are the 5 sub-types of bottom-dweller body plans?

A

Rovers, clingers, hiders, flatfish, and rattails

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46
Q

What are the characteristics of the deep-bodied body plan?

A

Lateral compression, long dorsal and anal fins, pectoral fins high on body, and pelvic fins anterior under pectorals. These fishes are built for maneuverability in tight quarters.

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47
Q

What are the characteristics of the eel-like body plan?

A

Elongated bodies, tapering or rounded tails, small paired fins, long dorsal and anal fins, and small scales. These fishes are adapted to living in small crevices or burrowing

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48
Q

What makes a fish more “primitive/ancestral”?

A

Similarity to a common ancestor while still being adapted to the present-day environment

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49
Q

What makes a fish more “derived”?

A

Amount of differentiation from a common ancestor

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50
Q

What is the ancestral to derived trend in paired fin placement?

A

As fishes become more derived, pelvic fins move from posterior to anterior and pectoral fins move from ventral to dorsal

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51
Q

What is the ancestral to derived trend in spininess?

A

As fishes become more derived, they become overall spinier

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52
Q

What is the ancestral to derived trend in jaw morphology?

A

As fishes become more derived, the jaws become overall looser and more flexible, the pre-maxilla becomes larger and more mobile, the maxilla becomes reduced, and teeth go from present on both the maxilla and pre-maxilla to only present on the pre-maxilla

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53
Q

What is the ancestral to derived trend in body shape?

A

As fishes become more derived, they go from long and fusiform with many vertebrae to short and compressed with fewer vertebrae

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54
Q

What are the two layers of the skin?

A

The epidermis and the dermis

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55
Q

Define the epidermis

A

The thin, upper layer of the skin containing live cells, mucous glands, and sometimes photophores

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56
Q

Define the dermis

A

The thicker, deeper layer of the skin containing blood vessels, nerves, and chromatophores

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57
Q

What are the two color classes of pigmentation in fishes?

A

Biochromes and schemochromes

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58
Q

Define biochromes

A

Chemical colors that absorb light and have a longer wavelength. Red, yellow, and orange

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59
Q

Define schemochromes

A

Structural colors that diffract, reflect, and scatter light, and have a shorter wavelength. Blue, green, iridescent

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60
Q

What are the 4 types of biochromes?

A

Melanophores (black and brown), xanthrophores (yellow), erythrophores (red), and cyanophores (blue, rare)

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61
Q

What are the 2 types of schemochromes?

A

Lecophores (white) and iridophores (iridescent blues, greens, neons, etc.)

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62
Q

What are the 4 types of scales?

A

Placoid, cosmoid, ganoid, and cycloid/ctenoid

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63
Q

What are the 3 main functions of scales?

A

Reducing drag, protecting against parasites, and protecting against abrasion

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64
Q

What are defining characters of placoid scales?

A

Present in sharks and rays, grow out of the epidermis, rooted in the dermis, do not grow with age, homologous to teeth, and have a hard enamel coating, a dentine middle layer, and a spongy inner layer

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65
Q

What are the defining characters of cycloid and ctenoid scales?

A

Flexible, covered by the epidermis, unicellular mucous glands, rooted in dermis, no enamel, and grow cocentrically with age

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66
Q

What are the defining characteristics of ganoid scales?

A

A shiny enamel-like ganoin coating, dentine middle layer, vascular bony lower layer, and the ability to interlock with peg and groove joints

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67
Q

What are the defining characteristics of cosmoid scales?

A

Found in fossil lobe-finned fishes and modified in some extant species, similar to ganoid scales, two bony lower layers (one dense, one spongy), a cosmine inner layer (similar to dentine), and an outer layer with hard, enamel-like vitrodentine

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68
Q

Define countershading

A

A camouflage technique involving dark pigmentation on top and light pigmentation on bottom

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69
Q

Define disruptive coloration

A

Coloration that can hide the body outline, making the head difficult to spot, or eyespots that make the head hard to find and can scare predators

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70
Q

Define osteology

A

The study of bones

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71
Q

What is the evolutionary trend in bones?

A

As fishes become more derived, they exhibit more fusion and reduction in bones

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72
Q

What are 5 ways we can study fish bones?

A

Manually removing flesh, dermestid beetles (eat flesh), clearing and staining, X-rays, and CT scans

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73
Q

What are the two types of bone?

A

Exoskeleton and endoskeleton

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74
Q

Define the exoskeleton bone

A

Dermal bone that ossifies directly, phylogenetically older

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75
Q

Define the endoskeleton bone

A

Perichondral or endochondral bone, phylogenetically younger

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76
Q

Define perichondral bone

A

Bone on the surface of cartilage, endoskeletal

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77
Q

Define endochondral bone

A

Cartilage bone that ossifies by replacing cartilage, endoskeletal

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78
Q

What are the 3 main components of the fish skeleton?

A

The vertebral column, the skull, and the appendicular skeleton

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79
Q

Define notochord

A

The primitive support structure that supports the body while swimming, present in all embryos and in adult sharks, sturgeon, paddlefish, and coelacanths

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80
Q

What is the difference between caudal and pre-caudal vertebrae?

A

The pre-caudal vertebrae are anterior to the caudal vertebrae and possess plural ribs and intra-muscular “ribs”

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81
Q

Define the centrum

A

The round center of the vertebra, present in both pre-caudal and caudal vertebrae

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82
Q

Define the neural arch and spine

A

The arch and the spine it forms atop the dorsal end of both caudal and pre-caudal vertebrae

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83
Q

Define the intermuscular “ribs”

A

The small, pointed structures located on either side of the neural arch on pre-caudal vertebrae

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84
Q

Define the plural ribs

A

The long, paired bones extending down from either side of the centrum on the ventral side of pre-caudal vertebrae

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85
Q

Define intermuscular bone

A

Bone that originates in the musculature, typically in proximity to the ribs (epiplural), the centrum (epicenter), or the neural spine (epineural)

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86
Q

What is the evolutionary trend in intermuscular bone?

A

As fishes go from primitive to derived, they have fewer intermuscular bones

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87
Q

Define the haemal arch and spine

A

The arch and the spine it form atop the ventral end of only the caudal vertebrae

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88
Q

Define the urostyle

A

The most posterior bone in the vertebral column and the center of the caudal fin

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89
Q

Define the epurals

A

The small cluster of bones extending from the urostyle on the dorsal end of the caudal fin, attach to the fin rays

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90
Q

Define the hypurals

A

The cluster of bones extending directly outward from the urostyle in the middle of the caudal fin, between the epurals and the parahypural, attach to the fin rays

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91
Q

Define the parahypural

A

the bone right below the hypurals extending out from the urostyle on the ventral end of the caudal fin, attach to the fin rays

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92
Q

What type of bone are caudal fin rays?

A

Dermal bone

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93
Q

When do elements of the caudal skeleton begin to form?

A

During pre-flexion as cartilage

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94
Q

What is the evolutionary trend in the caudal skeleton?

A

As fishes go from primitive to derived, they exhibit more fusion in hypurals

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95
Q

Define pterygiophores

A

The 3-segment bones that support fin rays internally with a muscular attachment for erection

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96
Q

What is the evolutionary trend in pterygiophores?

A

As fishes go from primitive to derived, they exhibit fusion in the elements of the pterygiophores

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97
Q

What are the two types of fin rays?

A

Soft rays and spines

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98
Q

What are the characteristics of soft rays?

A

Usually paired elements, segmented, sometimes branched, usually soft, usually found in all fins except the anterior dorsal fin, when 2 are present

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99
Q

What are the characteristics of spines?

A

Not paired, not branched, not segmented, usually stiff, typically found in anterior dorsal fin, first elements in posterior dorsal/anal fin, first element in pelvic fins

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100
Q

What is the evolutionary trend in fin rays?

A

As fishes move from ancestral to derived, they have more spines than soft rays

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101
Q

What are the 7 functional units of the head skeleton?

A

The cranium, suspensiorium, jaws, opercular apparatus, pectoral girdle, hyoid apparatus, and gill arches

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102
Q

Define the neurocranium

A

The brain case

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103
Q

What is the evolutionary trend in the neurocranium?

A

As fishes move from ancestral to derived, the neurocranium goes from solid, fused bones to a solid core with many loosely articulated bones

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104
Q

What is the function of the opercular bones?

A

Protecting the gills and gill arches

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105
Q

What is the function of the hyoid and gill arches?

A

To form the bottom of the mouth and provide support for the gills

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106
Q

What structure evolved into the jaw?

A

The first gill arch

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107
Q

What did the second gill arch evolve into?

A

The hyoid arch, which now supports the jaw

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108
Q

Define the chondrocranium

A

The case for the brain and sensory organs in sharks

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109
Q

Define the splanchnocranium

A

The jaws (mandibular) and hyoid in sharks

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110
Q

What are the four types of jaw suspension?

A

Aphistylic, hyostylic, holostylic, and autostylic

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111
Q

Define aphistylic jaw suspension

A

The palatoquatrate is attached to the chondrocranium and the hyoid arch supports both jaws

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112
Q

Define hyostylic jaw suspension

A

Flexible with no otic process

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113
Q

Define autostylic jaw suspension

A

Hyoid arch isn’t involved at all

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114
Q

Define holostylic jaw suspension

A

The palatoquadrate is fused with the the chondrocranium and supports the jaw

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115
Q

What kind of bone are the jaws made of in bony fishes?

A

Dermal bone

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116
Q

What are the 3 components of jaws in bony fishes?

A

The dentary (lower jaw), maxilla (upper jaw), and pre-maxilla (upper jaw)

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117
Q

What type of bone is the suspensorium in bony fishes?

A

Endochondral bone

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118
Q

What are the two components of the suspensorium in bony fishes?

A

The palatine and the quadrate

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119
Q

What are the 3 challenges of feeding in water?

A

Getting to prey, getting prey in the mouth, and keeping prey in the mouth

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120
Q

What are the 3 main feeding modes?

A

Run and hit, filter feeding, and gulp feeding

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121
Q

Define run and hit feeding

A

Involves a firm jaw and no suction

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122
Q

Define filter feeding

A

Keeping the mouth open while swimming and using gill rakers and filaments to filter food out of the water

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123
Q

Define gulp feeding

A

Suction feeding, don’t bite, no contact of prey with the jaws, create negative pressure by quickly opening the mouth

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124
Q

What are the two main ways of opening the mouth?

A

Hyoid coupling, which creates suction, and opercular coupling, which does not create suction

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125
Q

What are the steps involved in hyoid coupling?

A

The expiaxial musculature pulls the head back, the hypaxial musculature causes rotation of the cleithrum (pectoral girdle), the hypaxial musculature pulls the hyoid apparatus back and down to create suction, and the lower jaw is pulled down

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126
Q

What are the steps involved in closing the mouth?

A

The adductor mandibulae pushes down on the levator operculi and pulls up on the primordial ligament, which raises the jaw, and water is expelled through the gills

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127
Q

What are the steps involved in opercular coupling?

A

The levator operculi lifts the opercular apparatus, which pulls back on the lower jaw via a ligament, which drops the jaw

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128
Q

What are the four phases of gulp and suck feeding?

A

The preparatory phase to reduce mouth volume, the expansive phase to increase mouth volume and create suction, the compressive phase, and the recovery phase where everything gets folded back into place

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129
Q

What are the two properties of water that affect locomotion?

A

Density (800x more than air) and viscosity (50x more than air)

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130
Q

What are the advantages of locomotion in water?

A

Neutral buoyancy is possible, gravity is less of a problem, and it’s relatively energy efficient

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131
Q

What are the disadvantages of locomotion in water?

A

Moving through the medium is difficult due to viscous/frictional drag and inertial/pressure drag

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132
Q

What is the equation to find the reynolds number?

A

Reynolds number = (speed x length)/kinematic viscosity

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133
Q

What does a high reynolds number indicate?

A

A fish is large and fast, and inertia is more important in locomotion

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134
Q

What does a low reynolds number indicate?

A

A fish is small and slow, and viscosity is more important in locomotion

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135
Q

What are the characteristics of a streamlined body?

A

The max width is 25% of length and the max width occurs 2/5s along the body length

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136
Q

Define anguilliform swimming

A

Usually at low Re, undulating waves throughout the body, net forces forward, somewhat inefficient, considerable yaw of the head, uses all of the body for propulsion

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137
Q

Define subcarangiform swimming

A

Uses about half of the body for swimming

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138
Q

Define carangiform swimming

A

Uses about 1/3 of the body for swimming

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139
Q

Define thunniform swimming

A

Uses almost nothing but the tail for swimming, the fastest with the highest Re

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140
Q

Define ostraciiiform swimming

A

Uses only the tail for propulsion

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141
Q

Define tetradontiform, balistiform, and diodontiform swimming

A

Uses median fins for propulsion

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142
Q

Define rajiform, amiiform, and gymnotiform swimming

A

Uses pectorals and median fins for propulsion

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143
Q

Define labriform swimming

A

Uses pectoral fins for propulsion

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144
Q

Define the round tail shape

A

Completely round, highly maneuverable, creates sharp turns, creates drag

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145
Q

Define the truncate tail shape

A

Outer edge of tail is curved slightly inward, specialized for short bursts of speed, creates less drag

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146
Q

Define the forked tail shape

A

Tail is forked, specialized for constant swimming but not at high speeds

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147
Q

Define the lunate tail shape

A

The tail is crescent shaped, specialized for high speeds, creates the least drag but has reduced maneuverability

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148
Q

Define the heterocercal tail shape

A

Found mostly in sharks, the dorsal segment of the tail is larger than the ventral, provides lift

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149
Q

Define roll

A

The left to right rocking of the fish’s body

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150
Q

Define yaw

A

The left to right sway of the fish’s body

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151
Q

Define pitch

A

The up and down nod of the fish’s body

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152
Q

What are the 3 main functions of fins?

A

To aid forward movement, to guide forward movement, and to work as a braking and reversing system

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153
Q

Are there any fish without fins?

A

Nope! But some are greatly reduced, like the hagfish

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154
Q

What are the main functions of the dorsal and anal fins?

A

Control roll and yaw, act as stabilizers and aid in turning

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155
Q

What are the main functions of the paired fins?

A

Control pitch, direction, and breaking, can control yaw and maneuvering in derived fishes

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156
Q

What are the 3 special features sharks have to aid in locomotion?

A

Interactions of the dorsal fin(s) and upper lobe of tail to create vortices and thrust, collagen fibers in skin to create elastic recoil, and friction-reducing scales

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157
Q

Since they don’t have swim bladders, how do sharks maintain their position in the water column?

A

A fat-rich liver for buoyancy and lift provided by their pectoral fins and the downward force of their heterocercal tails

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158
Q

Define buoyancy

A

The ability to float in water (or any other liquid); the upward force that a fluid exerts on an object less dense than itself

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159
Q

What happens if an object is more dense than water?

A

The object will sink

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160
Q

What happens if an object is less dense than water?

A

The object will float

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161
Q

What are the 4 main strategies for controlling buoyancy?

A

Low-density building blocks, lift generated by fins, reduction of heavy tissues, and gas filled spaces for displacement

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162
Q

What are the two types of air filled organs?

A

Lungs, which are paired, ventral, and used for respiration, and swim bladders, which are single, dorsal, and used for buoyancy control

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163
Q

What are the two types of swim bladders?

A

Physostomous and physoclistous

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164
Q

Define the physostomous swim bladder

A

Connects to foregut, air can be taken up and released through mouth, which can be problematic if a fish is deep and wants to go deeper

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165
Q

Define the physoclistous swim bladder

A

Gas is added and removed through special glands through the blood

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166
Q

Define the counter-current gas exchange system

A

The blood flowing back to the body first enters arete mirabilewhere virtually all the excess carbon dioxide and oxygen produced in the gas gland diffuses back to the arteries supplying the gas gland.

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167
Q

How is gas released from physoclistic swim bladders?

A

Gas is released through a resorptive area, where it is dissolved into the blood and released through the gills

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168
Q

What are the 2 main ways fishes can produce sound?

A

Stridulation and through the swim bladder

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169
Q

Define stridulation

A

Sound produce through friction of the teeth, fin spines, or bones

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170
Q

What is an FRT?

A

A Frequent Repetitive Tick, a possible method of communication found in the family clupidae

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171
Q

What 2 things does gas solubility in water depend upon?

A

Temperature and salinity

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172
Q

Define normoxic water

A

Normally saturated with oxygen, at equilibrium with air

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173
Q

Define hypoxic water

A

Water has a lower oxygen content than normal

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174
Q

Define anoxic water

A

Water with no oxygen

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175
Q

Define hyperoxic water

A

Supersaturated water with too much oxygen

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176
Q

What are the functional differences between lungs and gills?

A

Gills are external, easier to move medium around, but susceptible to collapse and drying out. Lungs are internal and harder to move medium around, but are protected from collapse and drying out

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177
Q

How do gill achieve their high efficiency?

A

Continuous water flow across gills by means of a buccal and opercular pump and a countercurrent system

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178
Q

What are the 2 cavities involved in fish breathing?

A

The buccal cavity (mouth) in front of the gills, and the opercular cavity under the operculum and behind the gills

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179
Q

Which of the two cavities involved in respiration always has lower pressure?

A

The opercular cavity

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180
Q

Define ram ventilation

A

Respiration through constant movement of water across gills by swimming with the mouth and operculum open

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181
Q

What’s the primary difference between teleost and elasmobranch gills?

A

Elasmobranchs have separate gill slits with septums in between, whereas teleosts have a single opening with no septum

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182
Q

What is the advantage of using a countercurrent system in respiration?

A

A gradient is maintained throughout the entire length of the system and more oxygen can be extracted from the water

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183
Q

Fishes have a single circuit system to pump blood. What is the order of the system?

A

Heart -> gills -> body/brain -> heart

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184
Q

What is the structure of a fish’s heart?

A

It has a single atrium and ventricle and only pumps deoxygenated blood

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185
Q

What carries most of the oxygen in blood?

A

Hemoglobin

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186
Q

What two effects affect oxygen capture and release?

A

The bohr effect and the root effect

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187
Q

Define metabolism

A

The sum of all biochemical processes in the body

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188
Q

How can metabolic rate be measured?

A

By oxygen consumption, which varies with temperature and doubles with every 10 degrees Celsius

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189
Q

What are the 3 different metabolic rates?

A

The routine metabolic rate (at rest), the maximum metabolic rate (at max activity), and metabolic scope (the range between routine and maximum)

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190
Q

How does oxygen consumption change as temperature goes up?

A

Oxygen consumption also goes up

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191
Q

What causes “dead zones”?

A

No oxygen input from the surface, algae and microorganisms use up oxygen, and metabolic rates go up in the summer

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192
Q

What can result from “dead zones”?

A

Avoidance, aquatic surface respiration, reduction of metabolism, and death

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193
Q

How is ATP produced in aerobic respiration?

A

Glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation

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194
Q

How is ATP produced in anaerobic respiration?`

A

Only glycolysis (which is less efficient), pyruvate is converted to lactate and stored, lactate needs to be worked up when oxygen becomes available again

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195
Q

How can some fish withstand anoxia?

A

They convert lactate to ethanol and excrete

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196
Q

Since gills would collapse if used as air breathing organs, what do fish use?

A

Gut modifications (lungs and swim bladders), gill modifications (branches or plates above gills), or the skin

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197
Q

Why do fishes osmoregulate?

A

To maintain efficiency of biochemical reactions, to regulate pH and ion balance, and to regulate substrates and products of metabolism

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198
Q

What are the two components of osmoregulation?

A

Osmoregulation (regulating water content) and ionic regulation (ensuring optimal ion concentration)

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199
Q

Define diffusion

A

The net movement of atoms or molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration

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200
Q

Define osmosis

A

The net movement of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane to the side of higher solute concentration

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201
Q

What are the two strategies for osmoregulaton?

A

Osmoconforming and osmoregulation

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202
Q

What is osmoconforming?

A

Not actively regulating osmolarity, body fluids are isotonic with environment. Most marine invertebrates, hagfish

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203
Q

What is osmoregulating?

A

Actively regulating internal osmolarity. Most marine vertebrates and all freshwater vertebrates

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204
Q

Define osmolarity

A

Osmotic concentration

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205
Q

What problems related to osmoregulation do freshwater teleosts face, and how do they combat them?

A

Hypotonic environment. Hyperhydration and salt loss, combated by drinking very little water, having many large well-developed glomeruli, reabsorbing salts along the length of the convoluted tubules, and producing very large amounts of very dilute urine

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206
Q

What problems related to osmoregulation do marine teleosts face, and how do they combat them?

A

Hypertonic environment. Dehydration and salt accumulation, combated by drinking lots of water, having few, very small glomeruli, excreting salt along the length of the convoluted tubules, and producing small amounts of concentrated urine

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207
Q

What are the 3 ways nitrogen can be excreted?

A

Ammonia (very soluble, highly toxic), urea (100,000 times less toxic, can be concentrated and stored, produced in the liver), or uric acid (much less soluble)

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208
Q

Each kidney has thousands of nephrons. What are the 3 components of the nephrons?

A

The glomerulus, the convoluted/nephric tubule, and the collecting duct

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209
Q

Define and explain the function of the glomerulus

A

The head of the nephron, the afferent and efferent arteriole. Filters water and solutes out of the blood stream

210
Q

Define and explain the function of the convoluted tubule

A

Split into proximal and distal parts, the long middle segment of the nephron. It reabsorbs water and solutes and secretes other substances.

211
Q

Define and explain the function of the collecting duct

A

The end of the nephron. Collects glomerular filtrates

212
Q

What is the specific nephron function in freshwater teleosts?

A

Excess water is filtered by glomeruli, filtrate is selectively modified by the tubule

213
Q

What’s special about the neck region of nephrons in freshwater teleosts?

A

It’s lined with cilia to move urine along

214
Q

What does the first proximal segment of the nephron do in freshwater teleosts?

A

Reabsorbs glucose, proteins, and other macromolecules

215
Q

What does the second proximal segment of the nephron do in freshwater teleosts?

A

Reabsorbs salts

216
Q

What do the distal segment and collection tube of the nephron do in freshwater teleosts?

A

Reabsorb Na+ and Cl-

217
Q

How is waste excreted in freshwater teleosts?

A

Through very dilute urine and some nitrogenous waste, which mostly excreted through the gills as ammonia

218
Q

What is the specific nephron function in marine teleosts?

A

Producing little primary urine and excreting salts in the convoluted tubule

219
Q

What’s different about the glomeruli in marine teleosts?

A

They are few, small, and poorly vascularized. Sometimes not present at all

220
Q

What’s unusual about the neck region of the nephron in marine teleosts?

A

It’s reduced or lost

221
Q

What does the first proximal segment of the nephron do in marine teleosts?

A

Same as in freshwater teleosts; reabsorbs glucose, proteins, and other macromolecules

222
Q

What does the second proximal segment of the nephron do in marine teleosts?

A

No reabsorption as in freshwater fishes. Active secretion of salts and waste products (urea and uric acid)

223
Q

Which segment of the nephron is always missing in marine teleosts?

A

The distal segment of the convoluted tubule

224
Q

What does the collection tube of the nephron do in marine teleosts?

A

Reabsorbs some salts

225
Q

What kind of waste is excreted through the gills of marine teleosts?

A

Urea

226
Q

Define stenohaline fishes

A

Fishes that are strictly marine or freshwater with narrow salinity tolerance

227
Q

Define euryhaline fishes

A

Fishes with a wide salinity tolerance, diadromous with a split life history

228
Q

What allows euryhaline fishes to have a wide salinity tolerance?

A

Chloride cells in the gills that can differentiate into freshwater or marine types

229
Q

Define anadromy and list the advantages

A

A diadromous life cycle where fishes are born in freshwater, grow at sea, and return to freshwater for reproduction. No predators in freshwater, growth opportunities are better at sea.

230
Q

Define catadromy

A

A diadromous life cycle where fishes are born in the sea, grow in freshwater, and return to the sea for reproduction

231
Q

Define amphidromy

A

A diadromous life cycle where fishes are born in freshwater, begin growth at sea, and finish growth and reproduce in freshwater or vice versa

232
Q

What type of osmoregulation do elasmobranchs use?

A

Urea osmoconforming

233
Q

What adaptions allow elasmobranchs to be urea osmoconformers?

A

The kidneys retain urea, the rectal gland excretes Na+ and Cl-, and the gills have reduced permeability

234
Q

How does urea function in elasmobranch kidneys?

A

It raises osmotic pressure of blood to just above saltwater

235
Q

What are the benefits of urea osmoconforming?

A

Energy saving and no need to drink

236
Q

What are the costs of urea osmoconforming?

A

A need for urea tolerance, urea synthesis from ammonia in liver, a large liver with low surface to volume ratio, creating a limited range of life history strategies

237
Q

What are the 5 major parts of the teleost brain?

A

The telencephalon, the diencephalon, the mesencephalon, the metencephalon, and the myelencephalon

238
Q

What major structure composes the telencephalon?

A

The olfactory bulb

239
Q

What major structures compose the diencephalon?

A

The pinea and the pituitary

240
Q

What major structure composes the mesencephalon?

A

The optic lobes

241
Q

What major structure composes the metencephalon?

A

The cerebellum

242
Q

What major structures compose the myelencephalon?

A

The brainstem and medulla

243
Q

Which portion of the brain and cranial nerve correspond to smell?

A

The telencephalon and cranial nerve I

244
Q

Which portion of the brain and cranial nerve correspond to vision?

A

The mesencephalon and cranial nerve II

245
Q

Which portion of the brain and cranial nerves correspond to taste?

A

The myelencephalon and cranial nerves VII, IX, and X

246
Q

Which portion of the brain and cranial nerves correspond to hearing and balance?

A

The myelencephalon and cranial nerve VIII

247
Q

What are the 3 types of chemoreception?

A

Olfaction, gustation, and general chemical sense

248
Q

What are the olfactory organs in fishes called?

A

Nares, which are lined with lamellae to increase surface area

249
Q

What are the sensory receptors involved in gustation?

A

Taste buds, which can be located anywhere on the body

250
Q

What sensory receptors are involved in general chemical sense?

A

Relatively low-sensory free nerve endings and spinal nerves

251
Q

How are nares different in teleosts and terrestrial vertebrates?

A

Terrestrial vertebrates have internal nares, whereas most teleosts have external nares

252
Q

What sense is most important for homing in salmon? How does it work?

A

Salmon are heavily reliant on olfaction for homing. The odors of streams imprint on them as they outmigrate, and they never forget it

253
Q

What is schreckstoff?

A

An alarm substance in fish that is released upon injury to warn other fish

254
Q

What two characteristics are unique to ostariophysian fishes?

A

Schreckstoff and the webarian apparatus

255
Q

Aside from otoliths, what can aid fishes in hearing?

A

The swim bladder (used as an amplifier), an extra internal gas bubble, or the webarian apparatus ( connects the swim bladder to the inner ear via ossicles)

256
Q

What structure aids in balance in fishes?

A

Three fluid filled semicircular canals in the inner ear

257
Q

What are the sensors on the lateral line called, and what are they filled with?

A

Neuromasts, filled with endolymphatic fluid

258
Q

What are the functions of the lateral line?

A

Detecting pressure waves in water for predator avoidance, prey detection, schooling behavior, and obstacle avoidance

259
Q

What are the main differences between human eyes and fish eyes?

A

Fish eyes have little density difference between water and air, the iris is not contractible, and they have spherical crystalline lenses for refraction

260
Q

What muscle focuses the eye in teleosts?

A

The M. retractor lentis, which pulls the lens back to focus on far away objects

261
Q

What muscle focuses the eye in chondricthians?

A

The M. protractor lentis, which pulls the lens forward to focus on close up objects

262
Q

What specializations do the eyes of the four eyed fish have?

A

Although they really only have two eyes, each eye has a dorsal cornea for aerial vision and a ventral cornea for aquatic vision, and an ellipsoid lens, the short axis for aerial vision and the long axis for aquatic vision

263
Q

What are the two fields of vision fishes possess?

A

Binocular (for anterior vision) and monocular (for lateral vision)

264
Q

How does the distance between the lens and the retina differ between binocular and monocular vision?

A

The distance is small for the monocular field and large for the binocular field

265
Q

What are the 6 ways fish adapt to light/dark?

A

Changing depth, pigment in cornea or lens, contractile irises, pupillary operculi, nictitating membrane, and pigments in the retina

266
Q

What are the two types of receptors in the eye?

A

Rods (for sensing light/dark) and cones (for sensing color)

267
Q

What is the function of opsins?

A

To absorb light at different frequencies. The sensitivity of different opsins can be changed to tune vision

268
Q

What is polarized light?

A

Reflected light that only vibrates in one direction, can be used for prey detection, communication, and navigation

269
Q

Why are eyes so quick to degenerate?

A

Eyes are expensive to maintain; require a lot of brain power and the retina in the most oxygen-needy tissue

270
Q

What differentiates electroreceptive fishes and non-electroreceptive fishes?

A

Presence or absence of specialized receptors

271
Q

What differentiates non-electric fishes from electric fishes?

A

Absence of electric organs and passive electroreception vs presence of electric organs and active electroreception

272
Q

What are passive ampullary electroreceptive organs derived from?

A

Neuromasts

273
Q

What are the electroreceptive organs in elasmobranchs called?

A

The ampullae of lorenzini

274
Q

How do sharks use electroreception to aid in orientation?

A

They sense magnetic fields by perceiving electric current as they move through the field

275
Q

What are receptors in active electroreception called?

A

Tuberous receptors

276
Q

Why is active electroreception less effective in salt water?

A

Salt water conducts electricity TOO well

277
Q

What do weakly electric fishes use active electroreception for?

A

Orientation

278
Q

What do strongly electric fishes use active electroreception for?

A

For stunning prey

279
Q

What are the 4 shared attributes of fishes with electric organs?

A

Slow moving or sedentary, nocturnal or inhabiting low-visibility environments, reduced eyes, and thickened skin for insulation

280
Q

What are 3 trends in the brains of electric fishes?

A

Enlarged cerebellum, enlarged lateral line nerves, and reduced optical and olfactory nerves

281
Q

What is the electric organ in electric eels called, and what’s it made of?

A

Hunter’s organ, made of stacks of electrocytes

282
Q

How does electrolocation work?

A

Mostly present in weakly electric fishes, it works through distorting electric fields

283
Q

What is electrocommunication used for?

A

Recognition of species and individuals, antagonistic behavior, schooling, and courtship

284
Q

What are the two chromosomal systems we covered and how do they differ?

A

The XY system (mammals, XY = male, XX = female) and the ZW system (birds, ZW = female, ZZ = male)

285
Q

Which chromosomal system do fishes use?

A

Both XY and ZW. Fishes can quickly switch between the two

286
Q

Define gonochorism

A

When species have two completely separate sexes

287
Q

Define hermaphroditism

A

When an individual of a species can be either sequentially or simultaneously either sex

288
Q

Define simultaneous hermaphroditism

A

The rare condition in which individuals are both male and female at the same time. They typically fertilize other individuals, but self-fertilization is sometimes possible

289
Q

Define sequential hermaphroditism

A

When a species begins life as one sex and can change to the other

290
Q

Define protandry

A

Beginning life as a male with the capability of switching to female

291
Q

Define protogyny

A

Beginning life as a female with the capability of switching to male

292
Q

What are gynogenteic females?

A

Females of a triploid species that lay triploid eggs that are activated by the sperm of a related species

293
Q

What are hybridogenetic females?

A

Females of a diploid species that lay haploid eggs with only the maternal genome that are fertilized by the sperm of a related species

294
Q

What two things are key in determining fitness (lifetime reproductive success) of a species?

A

Longevity and fecundity

295
Q

What are equilibrium strategists?

A

Fishes that live in a stable environment, have a long lifespan, produce few, large offspring, and invest lots of parental care. Example: sharks, rays, coral reef fishes

296
Q

What are opportunistic strategists?

A

Fishes that live in frequently and unpredictably disturbed but productive habitats, short lived, produce many small offspring with little parental care, and rapid population growth. Example: guppies, small clupeids

297
Q

What are periodic strategists?

A

Fishes that live in a predictably changing environment, long lived and highly fecund with early life history mortality higher than adult mortality. Example: Rockfishes

298
Q

Define iteroparity

A

A reproduction strategy that involves repeated reproduction after maturation

299
Q

Define semelparity

A

A reproduction strategy that involves reproducing once before dying

300
Q

Define oviparity

A

The method of laying eggs that develop and hatch outside of the body. Can be pelagic (free floating) or demersal (substrate bound)

301
Q

What are the three types of parental care associated with demersal eggs?

A

Brood hiders, guarders, and bearers

302
Q

Define ovoviviparity

A

The method of keeping eggs inside the mother’s body until hatching, but with no direct connection to or nutrients from the mother

303
Q

Define viviparity

A

The method of bearing live offspring that develop inside the mother’s body and have a direct connection to receive nutrients from her

304
Q

What modified fins do members of chondricthyes have that assist in fertilization?

A

Claspers

305
Q

What are the three types of pseudoplacental connection in viviparity?

A

Villi of the ovaries connecting to the skin of the embryos, branchial placentas (ovarian tissue makes contact with gills of the embryo), and trophotaenia (extrusions from the hindgut of embryos)

306
Q

What are the synapomorphies of chordata?

A

A notochord, pharyngeal (gill) slits, and a post-anal tail for some part of the life cycle

307
Q

Explain urochordata

A

“tail” + “chord”, tunicates and relatives, sessile adults with free-swimming larvae, descendent groups may have evolved from larvae

308
Q

Explain cephalochordates

A

“head” + “chord”, notochord extends to front end of the body in front of the brain

309
Q

What do cephalochordates have in common with fishes?

A

A fusiform body for swimming, muscles in V-shaped blocks, a distinct head, paired gills, and a notochord

310
Q

How are cephalochordates different from fishes?

A

No biomineralization–no cranium or vertebrae, no bone, no dentine, no scales

311
Q

When did vertebrates first appear?

A

During the cambrian explosion

312
Q

How many years ago did the first vertebrates appear?

A

500-450 million years ago

313
Q

What are the two hypotheses on extant jawless fishes?

A

The vertebrate hypothesis and the cyclostome hypothesis

314
Q

Explain the cyclostome hypothesis

A

The hypothesis on the placement of lampreys that states that lampreys are more closely related to hagfishes than jawed fishes

315
Q

What characteristics do lampreys share with hagfishes?

A

No jaws, no gill arches, single median nostril, no paired fins, never had bone, and a cartilaginous skeleton

316
Q

Explain the vertebrate hypothesis

A

The hypothesis on the placement of lampreys that states that lampreys are more closely related to vertebrates than hagfishes

317
Q

What characteristics do lampreys share with jawed fishes?

A

2-3 semicircular canals, neural and haemal arches, neuromasts in the lateral line, eye muscles, nervous regulation of the heart, and osmoregulation

318
Q

What are the characteristics of agnatha?

A

Not monophyletic, jawless, the earliest vertebrates

319
Q

What are the major groups of agnatha?

A

Mixinomorphi, petromyzontomorphi, and the ostracoderms (extinct)

320
Q

What are the major characteristics of the myxiniformes?

A

Mucous glands (myxin means slime), no fins, jawless, barbels present around mouth, keratinous “teeth” on tongues, degenerated eyes

321
Q

What are the major INTERNAL characteristics of the myxiniformes?

A

A rudimentary cranium, no gill arches, no true vertebrae, a partially open circulatory system with 4 rudimentary hearts, and an osmoconforming system

322
Q

What are the characteristics of the reproductive systems of myxinomorphi?

A

Each individual has both ovaries and testes though only one is active, hooks attach eggs to substrate, juvenile hagfish have never been seen, iteroparous

323
Q

When did ostracoderms first appear?

A

The first major vertebrate radiation, 460 million years ago

324
Q

What are the cmorphological characteristics of ostracoderms?

A

No jaws, no pelvis fins, small, bony armor, dorso-ventrally flattened, and well-formed cartilaginous

325
Q

What are the functional characteristics of ostracoderms?

A

Bottom dwellers, filter-feeders, heteroceral and hypoceral tails to push off the bottom, moved like tadpoles, gills exclusively for filter feeding

326
Q

What are some characteristics of ostracoderm armor?

A

Plates around head, scale-like around body, first bone in the fossil record, dermal bone only, for proection from predators

327
Q

What are some characteristics of petromyzontomorphi?

A

Anadromous or freshwater, parasitic or non-feeeding as adults, larval ammocytes–filter feeders

328
Q

What are the internal anatomical characteristics of lampreys?

A

Well-developed neural arches, osmoregulation, neuromasts, cartilaginous skeletons, well-developed cranium, no gill arches, gill pouches, two semicircular canals, single median nostril, partly open circulatory system with one heart

329
Q

What are the external anatomical characteristics of lampreys?

A

An oral disc, no jaws, tooth-like plates of keratin, 7 pairs of gill slits, eyes well developed in adults, eel-like, naked body

330
Q

What are the life history characteristics of lampreys?

A

Separate sexes, 2 distinct life stages (ammocoete larva and adult), larva live up to 5 years, adults live for ~2 years and migrate to spawn, anadromous, semelparous

331
Q

Are lampreys truly parasites?

A

No, because the hosts are seriously harmed. They’re really just predators

332
Q

What are conodonts?

A

Mysterious fossilized hard parts about 1mm in size, highly diverse and abundant, have bone, dentin, and enameloid (similar to enamel), very early evolution of bone

333
Q

What are the characteristics of the phylum gnathostomata?

A

Jawed vertebrates, 99% of all vertebrates, jaws, endochondral bone, teeth, paired appendages, 3 semicircular canals, myelinated neurons

334
Q

What are the 4 major groups of gnathostomata?

A

Placoderms (“plate-skinned fishes”), chondrichthyes (“cartilaginous fishes”), Acanthodii (“spiny sharks”), and osteichthyes (bony fishes)

335
Q

When did placodermi rise then peak?

A

It rose in the ordovician period and peaked in the devonian period

336
Q

What is the main synapomorphy of placodermi?

A

A ring of interlocking plates around the shoulder region

337
Q

What are the main characteristics of placodermi?

A

Dermal bone, exoskeleton, endochondral bone, paired fins, powerful jaws, predatory, ecologically diverse, hinge on head for jaw flexibility, lack jaw suspensorium

338
Q

What structures did placoderms lack?

A

True teeth, possibly a paired gas bladder/lungs,

339
Q

What likely led to the demise of placoderms?

A

Competition with other predators, namely sharks, who could move faster and were far more mobile

340
Q

When did the class chondrichthyes start to appear?

A

400 million years ago

341
Q

What are the 2 subclasses of chondrichthyes?

A

Holocephali (which is less diverse) and elasmobranchii

342
Q

What are the common features of chondrichthyes?

A

A cartilaginous skeleton, placoid scales, no gas bladder, a spiral valve in the intestine, internal fertilization, and osmoregulation by retention of urea

343
Q

What order is in the subclass holocephali?

A

Chimaeriformes (chimaeras, ratfish)

344
Q

What divisions are in the subclass elasmobranchii?

A

Selachimorpha (sharks, galeomorphi and squalimorphi) and batoidea/batimorpha (skates and rays)

345
Q

What are the characteristics of holocephali?

A

Holostylic jaw suspension (palatoquadrate fused with cranium), single gill opening that covers gill 4 slits, continually growing teeth, and a rostrum heavily lined with Ampullae of Lorenzini

346
Q

What are the 5 reproductive features of holocephali?

A

Frontal tenaculum, two pre-pelvic tenacula, and two claspers

347
Q

What are the external characteristics of elasmobranchi?

A

5-7 gill openings, spiracle (primitive gill slit), placoid scales, upper jaw not fused to cranium, lower jaw suspended (hyostylic), a subterminal mouth, replicating teeth, and pelvic claspers for mating

348
Q

What are the sensory features of elasmobranchi?

A

Highly developed olfaction, good vision with mainly rods, good hearing with no otoliths but instead granules in the matrix, electroreception through the ampullae of lorenzini, a good lateral line system, an a large brain

349
Q

What are the features of mating in elasmobranchi?

A

Males have pelvic claspers (not homologous with placoderm claspers), and mating is costly. they’re slow to grow and mature, have long gestation, often years between birth cycles, huge investment in a limited number of offspring, and have well-developed offspring

350
Q

Define oophagy

A

An occurrence in ovoviviparity where embryo eat unfertilized eggs

351
Q

Define embryophagy

A

An occurrence in ovoviviparity where embryos eat each other

352
Q

What are some features of selachimorpha that batiomorpha don’t have?

A

Pectoral fins not fused to the head, gill openings on the side, a small lateral spiracle, and an anal fin present

353
Q

What are some features of batiomorpha that selachimorpha don’t have?

A

Pectoral fins fused to the head, ventral gill openings, large dorsal spiracle, and no anal fin

354
Q

What 4 orders are in squalimorphi?

A

Hexanchiformes, pristiophoriformes, squatiniformes, and squaliformes

355
Q

What 4 orders are in galeomorphi?

A

Heterodontiformes, lamniformes, orectolobiformes, and carcharhiniformes

356
Q

What are the rajiformes?

A

Skates. Oviparous, make up more than half of batiomorpha

357
Q

What are the rays?

A

5 orders, viviparous, “nested” within skates

358
Q

What are the characteristics of the class Acanthodii?

A

The “spiny sharks,” have jaws, dentine tipped scales, large eyes, stout spines on all fins, fed in water column

359
Q

When did the spiny sharks live?

A

440 million years ago

360
Q

What characteristics do spiny sharks share with sharks?

A

Structure of jaw (derived from Meckel’s cartilage), girll arches, and pectoral fins

361
Q

What characteristics do spiny sharks share with bony fishes?

A

Bony operculum, branchiostygal rays, 3 pairs of otoliths, and bony support of fins

362
Q

When did osteichthyes first start to appear?

A

416 million years ago

363
Q

What are the 2 major groups of osteichthyes?

A

Sarcopterygii and actinopterygii

364
Q

What are the characteristics of osteichthyes?

A

Bone, bony scales, lepidotrichia (form soft rays of fins), and lungs/swim bladder

365
Q

What did the swim bladder evolve from?

A

Lungs

366
Q

Define lepidotrichia

A

The dermal bone origins of soft fin rays

367
Q

Define the class sarcopterygii

A

The lobe finned fishes, monophyletic group, more closely related to tetrapods than to other fishes, largely extinct, highly derived extant species

368
Q

What are the synapomorphies of sarcopterygii?

A

Large lobed fins, enamel on the teeth, and cosmoid scales

369
Q

How are lobed fins different from rayed fins?

A

The fins are thick and fleshy with more, large bones to support them

370
Q

What are the two subclasses of sarcopterygii?

A

Actinista (coelacanthiformes) and dipnoi (lungfish)

371
Q

When did the subclass actinista start to appear?

A

70 million years ago

372
Q

What are the characteristics of actinista?

A

Hollow spines, little known about biology, thought to be extinct

373
Q

Who discovered the first coelacanth and what was it later named?

A

Marjorie Courtenay-Latimer. It was later named Latimeria chalmunae

374
Q

What are the external characteristics of coelacanths?

A

A diphyceral tail (symmetrical, “three lobes,” vertebrae extend all the way through), external nostrils, and large, bony scales

375
Q

What are the behavioral characteristics of coelacanths?

A

Live 140-400m deep, rest in caves during the day, feed on fish and sharks at night, don’t walk along bottom, upside down orientation?

376
Q

What are the internal characteristics of coelacanths?

A

Ovoviviparous, larvae start on yolk sac, yolk sac turns into primitive umbilical through which nutrients are transferred, urea in blood

377
Q

Define the subclass dipnoi

A

The lungfishes, elongate bodies, continuous dorsal-anal-caudal fins

378
Q

What are the 3 families of dipnoi?

A

Ceratodontidae (Aus), Lepidosirenidae (S. Am), and Protopteridae (African)

379
Q

What are the characteristics of dipnoi?

A

A diphyceral tail, continuous dorsal-anal-caudal fins, maxilla and premaxilla absent, branchiostegal rays absent, and lungs

380
Q

What are the life history characteristics of dipnoi?

A

Lay eggs in muddy bank, males defend nest, babies look like salamander tadpoles with external gills

381
Q

Define estivation

A

The process in which lungfish burrow in mud, secrete mucus to create a cocoon, drop their metabolism, consume little oxygen, metabolize muscles, and build up urea for up to four years in order to survive dry stretches of time where their habitats lack water

382
Q

Are lungfish more closely related to tetrapods or coelacanths?

A

Tetrapods

383
Q

What species gave rise to the tetrapods?

A

Tiktaalik roseae

384
Q

What are the three most important trends in teleost evolution?

A

Shift in position of paired fins, increased spininess, and expansion of premaxilla and development of ascending process

385
Q

What three orders make up elopomorpha and what unites them?

A

Elopiformes (tarpon), albuliformes (bonefishes) and eels (anguilliformes), they both have leptocephalus larvae

386
Q

What are leptocephalus larvae?

A

Extremely thin, transparent larvae. Large teeth but it’s unclear what they feed on

387
Q

What are the characteristics of elopiformes and albuliformes?

A

Cycloid scales, forked tails, leptocephalus larvae, live in shallow marine habitat, usually tropical or sub-tropical

388
Q

What are the characteristics of anguiliformes?

A

Lack pelvic fins and sometimes pectorals, deeply embedded cycloid scales or no scales at all, no gill rakers, usually marine but sometimes catadromous

389
Q

What are the characteristics of saccophyrngiformes?

A

The gulper eels, not true eels. No opercular bones, no branchiostegals, no maxilla, no premaxilla, no vomer, no paraspenoid, no scales, no paired fins, no ribs, no gas bladder, and unique neuromasts. These are the most anatomically modified vertebrates.

390
Q

What order is the most anatomically modified order of vertebrates?

A

Saccophyrngiformes, the gulper eel

391
Q

What orders make up osteoglossimorpha?

A

Hiodontiformes and osteoglossiformes

392
Q

What family is contained in the order hiodontiformes?

A

Hiodontidae, the mooneyes

393
Q

What 5 families are contained in the order osteoglossiformes?

A

Osteoglossidae (the arowanas), Notopteridae (the old world knifefishes), Mormyridae (the elephant fishes), Gymnarchidae (the aba), and Pantodontidae (the butterflyfish)

394
Q

What is the most important defining feature of osteoglossiformes?

A

A bony tongue not found in other fishes.

395
Q

What are the two components of the bony tongues of osteoglossiformes?

A

The glossohyal plate in the floor of the mouth and the parasphenoid on top

396
Q

What are the defining features of osteoglossiformes?

A

Many vertebrae, many breathe air, no intramuscular bones, reduced number of caudal rays, and a mix of fused and unfused hypurals

397
Q

Which two families of osteoglossiformes are weakly electric?

A

Mormyridae (the elephant fishes) and gymnarchidae (the aba)

398
Q

What are the two major groups of otocephala?

A

Clupeiformes and ostariophysii

399
Q

What are the two main families of clupeiformes?

A

Clupidae (herrings, shad, sardines) and engraulidae (anchovies)

400
Q

What is the main synapomorphy of clupeiformes?

A

A direct connection between the swim bladder and the ear to enhance hearing

401
Q

What id the largest fishery in the world?

A

The Peruvian anchoveta, Engraulis ringes

402
Q

What are the main characters of clupeiformes?

A

Silvery scales, a compressed body form, a flexible mouth, and fine gill rakers

403
Q

What creates the reflective, silvery color in the skin of clupeiformes?

A

Guanine crystals

404
Q

What percentage of all fishes, and what percentage of freshwater fishes, does ostariophysi encompass?

A

25% of all fishes, 75% of freshwater fishes

405
Q

What are the characteristics of ostariophysi?

A

Schreckstoff substance, a 2 chamber swim bladder, breeding tubercles, an extensible upper jaw for suction feeding, pelvic fins in the abdominal position, pharyngeal teeth, and the webarian apparatus

406
Q

What is the Webarian apparatus?

A

The bones connecting the swim bladder to the ear

407
Q

What are the characteristics of cypriniformes (carp and minnows)?

A

A protrusible upper jaw, the kinethmoid bone in the jaw, a toothless mouth, scaleless heads, and no adipose fin

408
Q

What are the characteristics of siluriformes (catfishes)?

A

No scales, barbels, and presence of an adipose fin

409
Q

What are the characteristics of characiformes (tetras and pirhanas)?

A

Well-developed teeth, a non-protrusible mouth, and presence of an adipose fin

410
Q

What are the characteristics of the gymnotiformes (new world knifefishes)?

A

Weakly electric and undulation with anal fin

411
Q

What does “pre-acanthomorph” mean?

A

Pre spiny finned, AKA the soft rayed euteleosts

412
Q

What are the characteristics of pre-acanthomorpha?

A

Basal characteristics, no spines, short dorsal and anal fins, pectoral fins low and horizontal, abdominal pelvic fins, a short premaxilla, a toothy maxilla, cycloid scales, and sometimes an adipose fin

413
Q

What are the esociformes?

A

Pikes and pickerels, freshwater fishes of the northern hemisphere

414
Q

What are the salmoniformes?

A

Salmon and trout, landlocked or anadromous fishes of the northern hemisphere

415
Q

What are the galaxiiformes?

A

The freshwater smelts, the sometimes amphidromous fishes of the southern hemisphere

416
Q

What are the argentiformes?

A

The marine smelts and deep sea oddities

417
Q

What are the aulopiformes?

A

The lizardfishes and deep sea oddities

418
Q

What are the myctophiformes?

A

The lanternfishes and other deep sea migrators

419
Q

What are the stomiatiiformes?

A

The dragon fishes and more deep sea oddities

420
Q

What are the special characteristics of the argentiform family Opistoproctidae?

A

The barreleye fishes have telescoping eyes pointed upward but capable of looking forward, a large lens, no cones, many rods, transparent heads, and sometimes a mirror like diverticulum to simultaneously see upwards and downwards

421
Q

What are the characteristics of the aulopiform family Gigaturidae?

A

The telescope fishes, no gas bladder, forward facing eyes with no lateral vision, a distensible stomach, a hypocercal tail, and a light skeleton with many missing bones

422
Q

What are the characteristics of the aulopiform family ipnopidae?

A

The deep sea tripod fishes, reduced eyes with no lens, protogynous hermaphrodites that can self-fertilize, and elongate pelvic, pectoral, and caudal fins

423
Q

What are the characteristics of the myctophiform family myctophidae?

A

The lanternfishes. Extreme abundance and special photophores that don’t rely on bioluminescent bacteria

424
Q

What are the characteristics of the stomiatiiform family Gonostomatidae?

A

The bristlemouths. Extreme abundance, migrators with photophores

425
Q

What are the characteristics of the stomiatiiform family Sternopthychidae?

A

The hatchetfishes. Photophores and tube shaped eyes

426
Q

What are the characteristics of the stomiatiiform family stomiidae?

A

The viperfishes and dragonfishes. Huge teeth, lie-in-wait predators, and a head that can unhinge from the rest of the body

427
Q

What are the two most important animals to the transfer of nutrients to the deep ocean?

A

Myctophidae (deep sea lanternfishes) and gonostomatidae (the bristlemouths). Migrate over 1000m daily and are largely responsible for the DSL, the deep scattering layer

428
Q

Approximately how many times did bioluminescence evolve independently?

A

27

429
Q

What are the two ways bioluminescent fishes produce light?

A

About half create their own light and the other half utilize bacterial symbiosis

430
Q

What does “acanthomorpha” mean?

A

“spiny morphs”

431
Q

What are the characters of acanthomorpha?

A

Spines in the fin (often leading spines), most other characteristics are derived, intra-group relationships are a mess

432
Q

Why is the phylogeny of acanthomorpha so difficult to figure out?

A

Adaptive radiation created bursts of speciation to rapidly fill new niches, speciation happened so quickly that there wasn’t enough time to develop synapomorphies, which leads to unresolved relationships

433
Q

What are the trend in acanthomorph reef fishes?

A

Trophic innovations–diverse feeding mechanisms (like labridae, the parrotfishes), lateral compression (like chaetodontidae, the butterfly fishes), miniaturization (like gobiidae, the gobies), and symbiosis (like pomacentrdae, the damsels and anenome fishes)

434
Q

What are the characteristics of gadiformes?

A

Cod. Usually one barbel on the chin, predominantly marine, very commercially important

435
Q

What are the characteristics of cottoidae?

A

Sculpins, snailfish, poachers. Benthis and deep-sea, temperate to arctic climate, either spiny and armored or naked and soft

436
Q

What are the characteristics of pleuronectiformes?

A

Asymmetrical as adults with a blind side and an upper side, can be dextral (eyes on the right) or sinistral (eyes on the left)

437
Q

What are the subgroups of scorpaeniformes?

A

Scorpionfishes and rockfishes

438
Q

What are the defining characteristics of the scorpionfishes?

A

Often venomous, masters of camouflage

439
Q

What are the defining characteristics of the rockfishes?

A

Very long-lived, periodic strategists, commercially important, and vulnerable to overfishing

440
Q

How are some members of gobiidae adapted to spending time outside the water?

A

Mudskippers live and breed in mud burrows and can breathe through their skin and the lining of their mouths and throats, and rock climbing gobies have specially modified fins that allow them to scale rocks

441
Q

How are some members of anabantoidae adapted to spending time outside of the water?

A

Labyrinth fishes have a labyrinth organ, a highly modified first gill arch with many folds that allows them to breathe air, and the climbing perch, which uses the operculum in synchrony with fins

442
Q

What’s unique about the life history strategies of acanthomorph family syngnathidae?

A

The pipefishes, sea horses, and sea dragons all have a high degree of male parental care

443
Q

What’s unique about the life history strategies of acanthomorph order lophiiformes?

A

The anglerfishes and frogfishes have parasitic males

444
Q

What’s unique about the life history strategy of the acanthomorph family cichlidae?

A

The females are mouth-brooders

445
Q

What makes some of the body plans in acanthomorph order tetradontidae so extreme?

A

These are the molas, pufferfishes, boxfishes, and triggerfishes. They can have fused maxillas and premaxillas, no ribs, a single hypural plate, pelvic fins extremely reduced or completely lost, scales reduced or lost, or caudal fin lost (mola)

446
Q

What is the class actinopterygii?

A

The ray finned fishes, monophyletic, very diverse, contains 96% of all fishes

447
Q

What are the synapomorphies of actinopterygii?

A

Ganoid scales in ancestral fishes, fins are predominantly rays throughout, the rays attach to radials, the radials are anchored in the scupulo-coracoid, and a single dorsal fin in ancestral fishes

448
Q

For what two reasons is it difficult to compare fin components across groups?

A

Parts making up the radial/endoskeletal domains are not homologous and fin rays in sharks are not homologous with those of osteichthyes

449
Q

What are the proportions of actinopterygii fins?

A

The fins are mostly rays

450
Q

What are the fin proportions of sarcopterygii fins?

A

The fins are mostly endoskeletal domain

451
Q

What are the proportions of chondrichthyes fins?

A

The fins are evenly split between rays and endoskeletal domain

452
Q

What is the order polypteriformes?

A

The birchirs and reedfishes, poly = many pteri = appendages, the sister group of all other ray finned fishes

453
Q

What are the external characteristics of the order polypteriformes?

A

Ganoid scales, a fused upper jaw, 5-18 dorsal finlets, and pectoral radials that are attached to the “shoulder” via intermediary cartilage

454
Q

What are the internal characteristics of the order polypteriformes?

A

A spiral valve intestine, paired lungs attached to the gut, respire through gills AND lungs (exclusively lungs in hypoxic water, called recoil respiration), and external gills in larval form

455
Q

What are the characteristics of the order acipenseriformes?

A

A cartilagenous skeleton, a heterocercal tail, a spiral valve intestine, and an unfused upper jaw

456
Q

What are the two groups of acipenseriformes?

A

The sturgeon (acipenseridae) and the paddlefish (polyodontidae)

457
Q

What are the characteristics of the acipenseriform family acipenseridae?

A

The sturgeon are commercially harvested for caviar, have 5 rows of bony scutes, a protrusible subterminal mouth, 4 barbels, and a diet of benthic invertebrates and fishes

458
Q

What are the characteristics of the acipenseriform family polyodontidae?

A

A long paddle-like snout (rostrum) covered in electrorecptors and a diet of zooplankton

459
Q

What are the external characteristics of the neopterygii order lepisosteiformes?

A

Elongate cylindrical bodies, a long snouth with sharp teeth, a small maxilla with no supramaxilla, ganoid scales, and a posterior dorsal fins

460
Q

What are the internal characteristics of the neopterygii order lepisosteiformes?

A

A spiral valve intestine, swim bladders that can be used for air breathing, egss that are toxic to birds and mammals but not other fish, opisthocoelous (ball in socket) vertebrae

461
Q

What are the characteristics of the neotpertygii order amiiformes

A

This is the amia cava, the bowfin. Located only in the Mississippi river, cycloid scales, a spiral valve intestine, a solid, bony skull, a lung for air gulping, and an abbreviate heterocercal tail

462
Q

In what class does the spiral valve intestine stop appearing?

A

It slowly is reduced until it’s gone completely in teleostei

463
Q

What are the synapomorphies of the class teleostei?

A

Uroneurals to support the caudal fin, intramuscular bones to add rigidity to the vertebral muscles (epineurals and epiplurals), Basibranchial and ceratobranchial toothplates, pharyngeal teeth, the urohyal in the hyoid apparatus to assist in hyoid coupling, and a mobile premaxilla

464
Q

In approximately what time period did the teleost explosion occur?

A

The permian/triassic boundary

465
Q

What are the four main hypotheses on the explosive radiation of teleosts?

A

Continental drift, morphological innovations, the cretaceous mass extinction event, and whole genome duplication

466
Q

What are the factors of the continental drift hypothesis of the teleost explosion?

A

The formation of large, shallow seas creates more habitable spaces, more complex habitats, and more niches, However, non coral reef lineages also diversified

467
Q

How long ago did the Cretaceous mass extinction event occur and what percentage of species were killed?

A

65 million years ago, killed 76% of species

468
Q

What are the factors of the Cretaceous mass extinction hypothesis of the teleost explosion?

A

Lack of species created vacant physical space and empty ecological roles that needed to be filled

469
Q

What are the factors of the whole genome duplication hypothesis of the teleost explosion?

A

The duplication occurred 320-350 million years ago, long before the explosion, but the increase in redundant genetic material may have allowed for evolutionary flexibility

470
Q

What is studied in biogeography?

A

The distribution of species (i.e. why are some regions more diverse than others? Why do some groups occur in some areas but not in others with perfectly suitable habitats?)

471
Q

What are considered to be the two main modes of speciation?

A

Allopatric and sympatric

472
Q

What are the two causes of allopatric speciation?

A

Vicariance and dispersal

473
Q

Define vicariance

A

The separation of a species by a new barrier

474
Q

Define dispersal (in the context of speciation)

A

Chance colonization of new areas, usually by larvae or eggs

475
Q

What drove allopatric speciation in lungfishes?

A

Vicariance. The three groups were close together in pangea, but when the continents split, a barrier was formed

476
Q

How did the order Cichlidae get to South America?

A

We… don’t really know. The pattern suggests vicariance but the age suggests dispersal

477
Q

What are the two types of biogeographic barriers that can affect dispersal?

A

Latitudinal (temperature) and longitudinal (hard barriers like land masses or soft barriers like large stretches of open ocean)

478
Q

What two gradients affect fish diversity?

A

A latitudinal gradient (most diversity is at the equator, least at the poles) and a longitudinal gradient across the indo-pacific ocean (center in northern Australia and oceania, radiates out into less diversity from there)

479
Q

What are the three geographical/physical hypotheses for latitudinal gradients in diversity?

A

The mid-domain effect, the geographical area hypothesis, and the climate harshness/stability hypothesis

480
Q

What are the two historical?evolutionary hypotheses for latitudinal gradients in diversity?

A

The historical pertubation hypothesis and the evolutionary rate hypothesis

481
Q

What is the mid-domain effect?

A

With a random distribution of species, it’s statistically more likely that most would end up towards the middle of an area

482
Q

What is the geographical area hypothesis?

A

The tropics are the largest biome, so naturally, it would make sense for them to have the highest diversity

483
Q

What is the climate harshness?stability hypothesis?

A

The poles have far harsher and less stable environments that don’t allow for much speciation to occur

484
Q

What is the historical pertubation hypothesis?

A

Temperate and polar regions have been repeatedly made inaccessible by things like ice ages throughout history, so they couldn’t be as thoroughly colonized so there has been less time for diversification

485
Q

What is the evolutionary rate hypothesis?

A

Evolution is faster because of higher temperatures which cause longer breeding seasons, shorter generation times, higher mutation rates

486
Q

What are the 6 zoogeographic regions?

A

The Indo-Pacific, the West Atlantic, the East Pacific, the East Atlantic, the Mediterranean, and the Arctic/Antarctic

487
Q

What is the approximate worldwide fisheries catch?

A

100,000,000 tonnes

488
Q

Where do mudskippers lay their eggs?

A

In an air chamber inside a burrow

489
Q

What is the shortest lived vertebrate?

A

The dwarf goby Eviota sigillata at ~60 days

490
Q

When a taxonomist determines that two names refer to the same species and need to be lumped together, which name is used?

A

The principle of priority states that the first name is used

491
Q

What kind of bone makes up the teleost jaw?

A

Dermal bone

492
Q

Which type of scales doesn’t possess a hard, enamel-like coating?

A

Cycloid/ctenoid

493
Q

What is the ascending process?

A

A process on the premaxilla that involves moving up and back while maintaining contact with the head

494
Q

Which two groups of fishes do not contain an air filled organ?

A

Chondrichthyes and agnatha

495
Q

Which two processes allow efficient release of gas from the blood into the swim bladder?

A

Acidification of blood to release oxygen from hemoglobin an countercurrent exchange in the rete mirable

496
Q

What is barotrauma?

A

Rapid ascent causing expansion of the swim bladder

497
Q

What is the gas gland in teleosts?

A

The gland that secretes air from the blood into the swim bladder

498
Q

What are intrinsic sonic muscles that are present in some teleosts?

A

Muscles in the wall of the swim bladder that can produce sound

499
Q

What is the purpose of egg spots in male cichlids?

A

To allow fertilization when the mouthbrooding female tries to pick them up

500
Q

What is a stenothermic fish?

A

A fish with a narrow salinity tolerance

501
Q

How does growth rate change with increasing temperature in most fishes?

A

It increases to an optimum then declines

502
Q

At what temperature can larval gadids survive longer without food?

A

At low tempertures

503
Q

Why does growth in many fishes slow down after they mature for the first time?

A

Because energy is divertted from growth to reproduction

504
Q

Why are hagfishes restricted to marine waters?

A

They are osmoconformers

505
Q

The first instance of endochondral bone in the evolutionary history of fishes was seen in?

A

Placoderms

506
Q

What is the fatty organ in the coelacanth?

A

An organ that replaced the lung

507
Q

What distinguishes Actinopterygii from Sarcopterygii?

A

Fins that are fully rayed from the base

508
Q

Combining genetic data and info from morphology and coloration, NOAA scientists were able to do what 2 things?

A

Split one species of snailfishes into two (then into four), split one species of rock sole into three, split one species of rock fishes into two, and increase the number of accurately identified collected in NOAA surveys

509
Q

What kind of jaw suspension do sturgeons have?

A

Hyostylic

510
Q

Which group of fishes have opisthocoelous vertebrae?

A

Lepisosteiformes

511
Q

What kind of scales do bowfins have?

A

Cycloid

512
Q

What is a urohyal bone?

A

A bone in the floor of the mouth associated with hyoid coupling

513
Q

Why is the Cretaceous mass extinction an unlikely SOLE explanation for the teleost explosion?

A

Certain major lineages evolved before that

514
Q

How is 18O reated to temperature?

A

It decreases with rising temperature

515
Q

How can otoliths be used to reconstruct climate patterns?

A

By estimating annual growth from otoliths from different periods

516
Q

How many otoliths does the typical teleost have?

A

6

517
Q

What is the best fish?

A

The dunkleosteus

518
Q

What is the worst fish?

A

The hagfish

519
Q

Why is it important that we know the life history of fishes?

A

It can be vital in controlling population by dictating when fisheries can harvest fishes and set controls on fishing in the wild

520
Q

What life history details in fishes are dependent on temperature?

A

Size of eggs, time of egg hatching, duration of time spent as eggs, success of hatching, size at hatch, larval duration, time to starvation as larvae, size at settlement in juveniles, time of spawning, age of maturity, size at age, and fecundity

521
Q

How do most fishes thermal ranges change throughout their lives until maturation?

A

Larvae and eggs have a much narrow range of temperature tolerance than juveniles

522
Q

What proteins are responsible for regulating calcification?

A

Hydrophilic proteins

Biology of Fishes (1 decks)

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