Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
What are the defining characteristics of a fish?
A
Aquatic vertebrates that are usually poikilothermic with gills and limbs in the form of fins
2
Q
Approximately how many species of fishes are there?
A
~34,500 species
3
Q
What percentage of fish species are marine vs. freshwater?
A
51% marine and 48% freshwater
4
Q
In terms of evolutionary history, approximately when did the first fishes appear?
A
~500 million years ago
5
Q
How are antarctic fishes adapted to life in freezing waters?
A
Their blood contains anti-freeze instead of hemoglobin
6
Q
Define taxonomy
A
The science of naming, delimiting, and classifying organisms
7
Q
Define systematics
A
Determining the relationships among organisms
8
Q
What do modern taxonomists do?
A
They describe species, name species, delimit/diagnose species, create and use tools to identify species (ex. identification keys), and categorize species
9
Q
What theoretical questions make up the species problem? (4)
A
Are species real or artificial? When is speciation complete? Will a single theory on species work for all forms of life? How do we accommodate exceptions to general species concepts?
10
Q
What operational/applied questions make up the species problem? (2)
A
How can taxonomists actually apply species concepts of a case by case basis? Are the best theoretical concepts easy to apply in practice?
11
Q
What is allopatric speciation?
A
A physical barrier is formed that separates a population, and over time, the two become different species
12
Q
What is peripatric speciation?
A
A group of a population enters a new, isolated niche, and develops into a new species to adapt to said niche
13
Q
What is parapatric speciation?
A
A group of a population enters an adjacent niche and adapts to fit said niche, becoming a separate species
14
Q
What is sympatric speciation?
A
Genetic polymorphism, over time, leads to a subgroup within a population that eventually becomes so different from the original population that it becomes its own species
15
Q
Define morphospecies
A
“a community… whose distinctive morphological characters are, in the opinion of a competent systematist, sufficiently definite to entitle it, or them to a specific name.” For example, dog breeds. Breeds, though morphologically diverse enough to warrant different names, can still interbreed and produce fertile offspring, making them still one species
16
Q
How does the biological species concept define a species?
A
Groups of actually or potentially interbreeding populations which are reproductively/genetically isolated from other such groups
17
Q
How does the evolutionary species concept define a species?
A
A single lineage of ancestor-descendant populations which maintains its identity from other such lineages and which has its own evolutionary tendencies and historical fate
18
Q
How does the phylogenetic species concept define a species?
A
An irreducible group whose members are descended from a common ancestor and who all possess a certain number of defining, or derived, traits
19
Q
What is “lumping” in taxonomy?
A
When several names apply to one species and they need to be “lumped” together
20
Q
What is “splitting” in taxonomy?
A
When one name applies to several species and they need to be “split” and renamed
21
Q
What are the “movers and shakers” in taxonomy?
A
When taxa are moved to different groups, “shaking up” classification
22
Q
Define artificial classification
A
An arrangement based on superficial characteristics, and not expressing the true natural relationships between species
23
Q
Define natural classification
A
Classification that best represents evolutionary history of an organism and its relatives
24
Q
Define phenetics and list the pros and cons
A
Classification based on overall similarity with equal weighting of all characteristics. Pro: reduces subjectivity. Cons: ignores evolution, particularly convergence and parallelism
25
Define cladistics
Classification based upon recency of common descent and uses only apomorphies to classify groups
26
Define apomorphies
Recent derived characteristics
27
Define plesiomorphies
Ancestral or primitive characteristics
28
Define synapomorphies
Shared derived characteristics, useful for arranging branches on a tree
29
Define autapomorphies
Unique derived characteristics, useful for distinguishing a branch, but not for grouping branches
30
Define symplesiomorphies
Shared ancestral characteristics, tell us nothing about the relationships within a group that possess the character
31
Define homoplasy
Convergent evolution. A character shared by a set of species but not present in their common ancestor. Separately evolved and not indicative of relationships.
32
Define cladogram
Branching diagram that links organisms based on common ancestry
33
Define a monophyletic group
Also called a clade. A natural group. Includes a most recent common ancestor plus all of its descendants.
34
Define a paraphyletic group
Also called a grade. Not a natural group. Includes a most recent common ancestor plus only some of its descendants.
35
Define a polyphyletic group
Not a natural group. A group that excludes the last common ancestor of all its members
36
What is parsimony criterion?
When choosing among competing hypotheses, we should accept the one that explains the data most simply and efficiently
37
Define meristic characters
Counts of structures
38
Define morphometric characters
Measurable characters
39
Define anatomical characters
Body structures such as skeletal structures, branches of blood vessels, or musculature
40
What are the 6 basic body plans?
Rover-predator, lie-in-wait predator, surface oriented, bottom dwellers, deep-bodied fishes, and eel-like fishes
41
What are the characteristics of the rover-predator body plan?
A fusiform (streamlined) body, flattened head, terminal mouth, narrow caudal peduncle, forked tail, and evenly distributed fins. These fishes are constantly moving and capture prey by pursuit.
42
What are the characteristics of the lie-in-wait predator body plan?
A fusiform and elongated body, flattened head, large eyes, large mouth with large teeth, a posterior dorsal fin, and a large amount of thrust for high speed acceleration
43
What are the characteristics of the surface oriented body plan?
Upward-pointing mouth, dorso-ventrally flattened, and a posterior dorsal fin. These fishes capture prey near the surface and can often take in oxygen from the air.
44
What are the characteristics of the bottom-dweller body plan?
Lots of variety, often with a reduced swim bladder, and often flattened. There are 5 sub-types.
45
What are the 5 sub-types of bottom-dweller body plans?
Rovers, clingers, hiders, flatfish, and rattails
46
What are the characteristics of the deep-bodied body plan?
Lateral compression, long dorsal and anal fins, pectoral fins high on body, and pelvic fins anterior under pectorals. These fishes are built for maneuverability in tight quarters.
47
What are the characteristics of the eel-like body plan?
Elongated bodies, tapering or rounded tails, small paired fins, long dorsal and anal fins, and small scales. These fishes are adapted to living in small crevices or burrowing
48
What makes a fish more "primitive/ancestral"?
Similarity to a common ancestor while still being adapted to the present-day environment
49
What makes a fish more "derived"?
Amount of differentiation from a common ancestor
50
What is the ancestral to derived trend in paired fin placement?
As fishes become more derived, pelvic fins move from posterior to anterior and pectoral fins move from ventral to dorsal
51
What is the ancestral to derived trend in spininess?
As fishes become more derived, they become overall spinier
52
What is the ancestral to derived trend in jaw morphology?
As fishes become more derived, the jaws become overall looser and more flexible, the pre-maxilla becomes larger and more mobile, the maxilla becomes reduced, and teeth go from present on both the maxilla and pre-maxilla to only present on the pre-maxilla
53
What is the ancestral to derived trend in body shape?
As fishes become more derived, they go from long and fusiform with many vertebrae to short and compressed with fewer vertebrae
54
What are the two layers of the skin?
The epidermis and the dermis
55
Define the epidermis
The thin, upper layer of the skin containing live cells, mucous glands, and sometimes photophores
56
Define the dermis
The thicker, deeper layer of the skin containing blood vessels, nerves, and chromatophores
57
What are the two color classes of pigmentation in fishes?
Biochromes and schemochromes
58
Define biochromes
Chemical colors that absorb light and have a longer wavelength. Red, yellow, and orange
59
Define schemochromes
Structural colors that diffract, reflect, and scatter light, and have a shorter wavelength. Blue, green, iridescent
60
What are the 4 types of biochromes?
Melanophores (black and brown), xanthrophores (yellow), erythrophores (red), and cyanophores (blue, rare)
61
What are the 2 types of schemochromes?
Lecophores (white) and iridophores (iridescent blues, greens, neons, etc.)
62
What are the 4 types of scales?
Placoid, cosmoid, ganoid, and cycloid/ctenoid
63
What are the 3 main functions of scales?
Reducing drag, protecting against parasites, and protecting against abrasion
64
What are defining characters of placoid scales?
Present in sharks and rays, grow out of the epidermis, rooted in the dermis, do not grow with age, homologous to teeth, and have a hard enamel coating, a dentine middle layer, and a spongy inner layer
65
What are the defining characters of cycloid and ctenoid scales?
Flexible, covered by the epidermis, unicellular mucous glands, rooted in dermis, no enamel, and grow cocentrically with age
66
What are the defining characteristics of ganoid scales?
A shiny enamel-like ganoin coating, dentine middle layer, vascular bony lower layer, and the ability to interlock with peg and groove joints
67
What are the defining characteristics of cosmoid scales?
Found in fossil lobe-finned fishes and modified in some extant species, similar to ganoid scales, two bony lower layers (one dense, one spongy), a cosmine inner layer (similar to dentine), and an outer layer with hard, enamel-like vitrodentine
68
Define countershading
A camouflage technique involving dark pigmentation on top and light pigmentation on bottom
69
Define disruptive coloration
Coloration that can hide the body outline, making the head difficult to spot, or eyespots that make the head hard to find and can scare predators
70
Define osteology
The study of bones
71
What is the evolutionary trend in bones?
As fishes become more derived, they exhibit more fusion and reduction in bones
72
What are 5 ways we can study fish bones?
Manually removing flesh, dermestid beetles (eat flesh), clearing and staining, X-rays, and CT scans
73
What are the two types of bone?
Exoskeleton and endoskeleton
74
Define the exoskeleton bone
Dermal bone that ossifies directly, phylogenetically older
75
Define the endoskeleton bone
Perichondral or endochondral bone, phylogenetically younger
76
Define perichondral bone
Bone on the surface of cartilage, endoskeletal
77
Define endochondral bone
Cartilage bone that ossifies by replacing cartilage, endoskeletal
78
What are the 3 main components of the fish skeleton?
The vertebral column, the skull, and the appendicular skeleton
79
Define notochord
The primitive support structure that supports the body while swimming, present in all embryos and in adult sharks, sturgeon, paddlefish, and coelacanths
80
What is the difference between caudal and pre-caudal vertebrae?
The pre-caudal vertebrae are anterior to the caudal vertebrae and possess plural ribs and intra-muscular "ribs"
81
Define the centrum
The round center of the vertebra, present in both pre-caudal and caudal vertebrae
82
Define the neural arch and spine
The arch and the spine it forms atop the dorsal end of both caudal and pre-caudal vertebrae
83
Define the intermuscular "ribs"
The small, pointed structures located on either side of the neural arch on pre-caudal vertebrae
84
Define the plural ribs
The long, paired bones extending down from either side of the centrum on the ventral side of pre-caudal vertebrae
85
Define intermuscular bone
Bone that originates in the musculature, typically in proximity to the ribs (epiplural), the centrum (epicenter), or the neural spine (epineural)
86
What is the evolutionary trend in intermuscular bone?
As fishes go from primitive to derived, they have fewer intermuscular bones
87
Define the haemal arch and spine
The arch and the spine it form atop the ventral end of only the caudal vertebrae
88
Define the urostyle
The most posterior bone in the vertebral column and the center of the caudal fin
89
Define the epurals
The small cluster of bones extending from the urostyle on the dorsal end of the caudal fin, attach to the fin rays
90
Define the hypurals
The cluster of bones extending directly outward from the urostyle in the middle of the caudal fin, between the epurals and the parahypural, attach to the fin rays
91
Define the parahypural
the bone right below the hypurals extending out from the urostyle on the ventral end of the caudal fin, attach to the fin rays
92
What type of bone are caudal fin rays?
Dermal bone
93
When do elements of the caudal skeleton begin to form?
During pre-flexion as cartilage
94
What is the evolutionary trend in the caudal skeleton?
As fishes go from primitive to derived, they exhibit more fusion in hypurals
95
Define pterygiophores
The 3-segment bones that support fin rays internally with a muscular attachment for erection
96
What is the evolutionary trend in pterygiophores?
As fishes go from primitive to derived, they exhibit fusion in the elements of the pterygiophores
97
What are the two types of fin rays?
Soft rays and spines
98
What are the characteristics of soft rays?
Usually paired elements, segmented, sometimes branched, usually soft, usually found in all fins except the anterior dorsal fin, when 2 are present
99
What are the characteristics of spines?
Not paired, not branched, not segmented, usually stiff, typically found in anterior dorsal fin, first elements in posterior dorsal/anal fin, first element in pelvic fins
100
What is the evolutionary trend in fin rays?
As fishes move from ancestral to derived, they have more spines than soft rays
101
What are the 7 functional units of the head skeleton?
The cranium, suspensiorium, jaws, opercular apparatus, pectoral girdle, hyoid apparatus, and gill arches
102
Define the neurocranium
The brain case
103
What is the evolutionary trend in the neurocranium?
As fishes move from ancestral to derived, the neurocranium goes from solid, fused bones to a solid core with many loosely articulated bones
104
What is the function of the opercular bones?
Protecting the gills and gill arches
105
What is the function of the hyoid and gill arches?
To form the bottom of the mouth and provide support for the gills
106
What structure evolved into the jaw?
The first gill arch
107
What did the second gill arch evolve into?
The hyoid arch, which now supports the jaw
108
Define the chondrocranium
The case for the brain and sensory organs in sharks
109
Define the splanchnocranium
The jaws (mandibular) and hyoid in sharks
110
What are the four types of jaw suspension?
Aphistylic, hyostylic, holostylic, and autostylic
111
Define aphistylic jaw suspension
The palatoquatrate is attached to the chondrocranium and the hyoid arch supports both jaws
112
Define hyostylic jaw suspension
Flexible with no otic process
113
Define autostylic jaw suspension
Hyoid arch isn't involved at all
114
Define holostylic jaw suspension
The palatoquadrate is fused with the the chondrocranium and supports the jaw
115
What kind of bone are the jaws made of in bony fishes?
Dermal bone
116
What are the 3 components of jaws in bony fishes?
The dentary (lower jaw), maxilla (upper jaw), and pre-maxilla (upper jaw)
117
What type of bone is the suspensorium in bony fishes?
Endochondral bone
118
What are the two components of the suspensorium in bony fishes?
The palatine and the quadrate
119
What are the 3 challenges of feeding in water?
Getting to prey, getting prey in the mouth, and keeping prey in the mouth
120
What are the 3 main feeding modes?
Run and hit, filter feeding, and gulp feeding
121
Define run and hit feeding
Involves a firm jaw and no suction
122
Define filter feeding
Keeping the mouth open while swimming and using gill rakers and filaments to filter food out of the water
123
Define gulp feeding
Suction feeding, don't bite, no contact of prey with the jaws, create negative pressure by quickly opening the mouth
124
What are the two main ways of opening the mouth?
Hyoid coupling, which creates suction, and opercular coupling, which does not create suction
125
What are the steps involved in hyoid coupling?
The expiaxial musculature pulls the head back, the hypaxial musculature causes rotation of the cleithrum (pectoral girdle), the hypaxial musculature pulls the hyoid apparatus back and down to create suction, and the lower jaw is pulled down
126
What are the steps involved in closing the mouth?
The adductor mandibulae pushes down on the levator operculi and pulls up on the primordial ligament, which raises the jaw, and water is expelled through the gills
127
What are the steps involved in opercular coupling?
The levator operculi lifts the opercular apparatus, which pulls back on the lower jaw via a ligament, which drops the jaw
128
What are the four phases of gulp and suck feeding?
The preparatory phase to reduce mouth volume, the expansive phase to increase mouth volume and create suction, the compressive phase, and the recovery phase where everything gets folded back into place
129
What are the two properties of water that affect locomotion?
Density (800x more than air) and viscosity (50x more than air)
130
What are the advantages of locomotion in water?
Neutral buoyancy is possible, gravity is less of a problem, and it's relatively energy efficient
131
What are the disadvantages of locomotion in water?
Moving through the medium is difficult due to viscous/frictional drag and inertial/pressure drag
132
What is the equation to find the reynolds number?
Reynolds number = (speed x length)/kinematic viscosity
133
What does a high reynolds number indicate?
A fish is large and fast, and inertia is more important in locomotion
134
What does a low reynolds number indicate?
A fish is small and slow, and viscosity is more important in locomotion
135
What are the characteristics of a streamlined body?
The max width is 25% of length and the max width occurs 2/5s along the body length
136
Define anguilliform swimming
Usually at low Re, undulating waves throughout the body, net forces forward, somewhat inefficient, considerable yaw of the head, uses all of the body for propulsion
137
Define subcarangiform swimming
Uses about half of the body for swimming
138
Define carangiform swimming
Uses about 1/3 of the body for swimming
139
Define thunniform swimming
Uses almost nothing but the tail for swimming, the fastest with the highest Re
140
Define ostraciiiform swimming
Uses only the tail for propulsion
141
Define tetradontiform, balistiform, and diodontiform swimming
Uses median fins for propulsion
142
Define rajiform, amiiform, and gymnotiform swimming
Uses pectorals and median fins for propulsion
143
Define labriform swimming
Uses pectoral fins for propulsion
144
Define the round tail shape
Completely round, highly maneuverable, creates sharp turns, creates drag
145
Define the truncate tail shape
Outer edge of tail is curved slightly inward, specialized for short bursts of speed, creates less drag
146
Define the forked tail shape
Tail is forked, specialized for constant swimming but not at high speeds
147
Define the lunate tail shape
The tail is crescent shaped, specialized for high speeds, creates the least drag but has reduced maneuverability
148
Define the heterocercal tail shape
Found mostly in sharks, the dorsal segment of the tail is larger than the ventral, provides lift
149
Define roll
The left to right rocking of the fish's body
150
Define yaw
The left to right sway of the fish's body
151
Define pitch
The up and down nod of the fish's body
152
What are the 3 main functions of fins?
To aid forward movement, to guide forward movement, and to work as a braking and reversing system
153
Are there any fish without fins?
Nope! But some are greatly reduced, like the hagfish
154
What are the main functions of the dorsal and anal fins?
Control roll and yaw, act as stabilizers and aid in turning
155
What are the main functions of the paired fins?
Control pitch, direction, and breaking, can control yaw and maneuvering in derived fishes
156
What are the 3 special features sharks have to aid in locomotion?
Interactions of the dorsal fin(s) and upper lobe of tail to create vortices and thrust, collagen fibers in skin to create elastic recoil, and friction-reducing scales
157
Since they don't have swim bladders, how do sharks maintain their position in the water column?
A fat-rich liver for buoyancy and lift provided by their pectoral fins and the downward force of their heterocercal tails
158
Define buoyancy
The ability to float in water (or any other liquid); the upward force that a fluid exerts on an object less dense than itself
159
What happens if an object is more dense than water?
The object will sink
160
What happens if an object is less dense than water?
The object will float
161
What are the 4 main strategies for controlling buoyancy?
Low-density building blocks, lift generated by fins, reduction of heavy tissues, and gas filled spaces for displacement
162
What are the two types of air filled organs?
Lungs, which are paired, ventral, and used for respiration, and swim bladders, which are single, dorsal, and used for buoyancy control
163
What are the two types of swim bladders?
Physostomous and physoclistous
164
Define the physostomous swim bladder
Connects to foregut, air can be taken up and released through mouth, which can be problematic if a fish is deep and wants to go deeper
165
Define the physoclistous swim bladder
Gas is added and removed through special glands through the blood
166
Define the counter-current gas exchange system
The blood flowing back to the body first enters a rete mirabile where virtually all the excess carbon dioxide and oxygen produced in the gas gland diffuses back to the arteries supplying the gas gland.
167
How is gas released from physoclistic swim bladders?
Gas is released through a resorptive area, where it is dissolved into the blood and released through the gills
168
What are the 2 main ways fishes can produce sound?
Stridulation and through the swim bladder
169
Define stridulation
Sound produce through friction of the teeth, fin spines, or bones
170
What is an FRT?
A Frequent Repetitive Tick, a possible method of communication found in the family clupidae
171
What 2 things does gas solubility in water depend upon?
Temperature and salinity
172
Define normoxic water
Normally saturated with oxygen, at equilibrium with air
173
Define hypoxic water
Water has a lower oxygen content than normal
174
Define anoxic water
Water with no oxygen
175
Define hyperoxic water
Supersaturated water with too much oxygen
176
What are the functional differences between lungs and gills?
Gills are external, easier to move medium around, but susceptible to collapse and drying out. Lungs are internal and harder to move medium around, but are protected from collapse and drying out
177
How do gill achieve their high efficiency?
Continuous water flow across gills by means of a buccal and opercular pump and a countercurrent system
178
What are the 2 cavities involved in fish breathing?
The buccal cavity (mouth) in front of the gills, and the opercular cavity under the operculum and behind the gills
179
Which of the two cavities involved in respiration always has lower pressure?
The opercular cavity
180
Define ram ventilation
Respiration through constant movement of water across gills by swimming with the mouth and operculum open
181
What's the primary difference between teleost and elasmobranch gills?
Elasmobranchs have separate gill slits with septums in between, whereas teleosts have a single opening with no septum
182
What is the advantage of using a countercurrent system in respiration?
A gradient is maintained throughout the entire length of the system and more oxygen can be extracted from the water
183
Fishes have a single circuit system to pump blood. What is the order of the system?
Heart -> gills -> body/brain -> heart
184
What is the structure of a fish's heart?
It has a single atrium and ventricle and only pumps deoxygenated blood
185
What carries most of the oxygen in blood?
Hemoglobin
186
What two effects affect oxygen capture and release?
The bohr effect and the root effect
187
Define metabolism
The sum of all biochemical processes in the body
188
How can metabolic rate be measured?
By oxygen consumption, which varies with temperature and doubles with every 10 degrees Celsius
189
What are the 3 different metabolic rates?
The routine metabolic rate (at rest), the maximum metabolic rate (at max activity), and metabolic scope (the range between routine and maximum)
190
How does oxygen consumption change as temperature goes up?
Oxygen consumption also goes up
191
What causes "dead zones"?
No oxygen input from the surface, algae and microorganisms use up oxygen, and metabolic rates go up in the summer
192
What can result from "dead zones"?
Avoidance, aquatic surface respiration, reduction of metabolism, and death
193
How is ATP produced in aerobic respiration?
Glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation
194
How is ATP produced in anaerobic respiration?`
Only glycolysis (which is less efficient), pyruvate is converted to lactate and stored, lactate needs to be worked up when oxygen becomes available again
195
How can some fish withstand anoxia?
They convert lactate to ethanol and excrete
196
Since gills would collapse if used as air breathing organs, what do fish use?
Gut modifications (lungs and swim bladders), gill modifications (branches or plates above gills), or the skin
197
Why do fishes osmoregulate?
To maintain efficiency of biochemical reactions, to regulate pH and ion balance, and to regulate substrates and products of metabolism
198
What are the two components of osmoregulation?
Osmoregulation (regulating water content) and ionic regulation (ensuring optimal ion concentration)
199
Define diffusion
The net movement of atoms or molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration
200
Define osmosis
The net movement of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane to the side of higher solute concentration
201
What are the two strategies for osmoregulaton?
Osmoconforming and osmoregulation
202
What is osmoconforming?
Not actively regulating osmolarity, body fluids are isotonic with environment. Most marine invertebrates, hagfish
203
What is osmoregulating?
Actively regulating internal osmolarity. Most marine vertebrates and all freshwater vertebrates
204
Define osmolarity
Osmotic concentration
205
What problems related to osmoregulation do freshwater teleosts face, and how do they combat them?
Hypotonic environment. Hyperhydration and salt loss, combated by drinking very little water, having many large well-developed glomeruli, reabsorbing salts along the length of the convoluted tubules, and producing very large amounts of very dilute urine
206
What problems related to osmoregulation do marine teleosts face, and how do they combat them?
Hypertonic environment. Dehydration and salt accumulation, combated by drinking lots of water, having few, very small glomeruli, excreting salt along the length of the convoluted tubules, and producing small amounts of concentrated urine
207
What are the 3 ways nitrogen can be excreted?
Ammonia (very soluble, highly toxic), urea (100,000 times less toxic, can be concentrated and stored, produced in the liver), or uric acid (much less soluble)
208
Each kidney has thousands of nephrons. What are the 3 components of the nephrons?
The glomerulus, the convoluted/nephric tubule, and the collecting duct
209
Define and explain the function of the glomerulus
The head of the nephron, the afferent and efferent arteriole. Filters water and solutes out of the blood stream
210
Define and explain the function of the convoluted tubule
Split into proximal and distal parts, the long middle segment of the nephron. It reabsorbs water and solutes and secretes other substances.
211
Define and explain the function of the collecting duct
The end of the nephron. Collects glomerular filtrates
212
What is the specific nephron function in freshwater teleosts?
Excess water is filtered by glomeruli, filtrate is selectively modified by the tubule
213
What's special about the neck region of nephrons in freshwater teleosts?
It's lined with cilia to move urine along
214
What does the first proximal segment of the nephron do in freshwater teleosts?
Reabsorbs glucose, proteins, and other macromolecules
215
What does the second proximal segment of the nephron do in freshwater teleosts?
Reabsorbs salts
216
What do the distal segment and collection tube of the nephron do in freshwater teleosts?
Reabsorb Na+ and Cl-
217
How is waste excreted in freshwater teleosts?
Through very dilute urine and some nitrogenous waste, which mostly excreted through the gills as ammonia
218
What is the specific nephron function in marine teleosts?
Producing little primary urine and excreting salts in the convoluted tubule
219
What's different about the glomeruli in marine teleosts?
They are few, small, and poorly vascularized. Sometimes not present at all
220
What's unusual about the neck region of the nephron in marine teleosts?
It's reduced or lost
221
What does the first proximal segment of the nephron do in marine teleosts?
Same as in freshwater teleosts; reabsorbs glucose, proteins, and other macromolecules
222
What does the second proximal segment of the nephron do in marine teleosts?
No reabsorption as in freshwater fishes. Active secretion of salts and waste products (urea and uric acid)
223
Which segment of the nephron is always missing in marine teleosts?
The distal segment of the convoluted tubule
224
What does the collection tube of the nephron do in marine teleosts?
Reabsorbs some salts
225
What kind of waste is excreted through the gills of marine teleosts?
Urea
226
Define stenohaline fishes
Fishes that are strictly marine or freshwater with narrow salinity tolerance
227
Define euryhaline fishes
Fishes with a wide salinity tolerance, diadromous with a split life history
228
What allows euryhaline fishes to have a wide salinity tolerance?
Chloride cells in the gills that can differentiate into freshwater or marine types
229
Define anadromy and list the advantages
A diadromous life cycle where fishes are born in freshwater, grow at sea, and return to freshwater for reproduction. No predators in freshwater, growth opportunities are better at sea.
230
Define catadromy
A diadromous life cycle where fishes are born in the sea, grow in freshwater, and return to the sea for reproduction
231
Define amphidromy
A diadromous life cycle where fishes are born in freshwater, begin growth at sea, and finish growth and reproduce in freshwater or vice versa
232
What type of osmoregulation do elasmobranchs use?
Urea osmoconforming
233
What adaptions allow elasmobranchs to be urea osmoconformers?
The kidneys retain urea, the rectal gland excretes Na+ and Cl-, and the gills have reduced permeability
234
How does urea function in elasmobranch kidneys?
It raises osmotic pressure of blood to just above saltwater
235
What are the benefits of urea osmoconforming?
Energy saving and no need to drink
236
What are the costs of urea osmoconforming?
A need for urea tolerance, urea synthesis from ammonia in liver, a large liver with low surface to volume ratio, creating a limited range of life history strategies
237
What are the 5 major parts of the teleost brain?
The telencephalon, the diencephalon, the mesencephalon, the metencephalon, and the myelencephalon
238
What major structure composes the telencephalon?
The olfactory bulb
239
What major structures compose the diencephalon?
The pinea and the pituitary
240
What major structure composes the mesencephalon?
The optic lobes
241
What major structure composes the metencephalon?
The cerebellum
242
What major structures compose the myelencephalon?
The brainstem and medulla
243
Which portion of the brain and cranial nerve correspond to smell?
The telencephalon and cranial nerve I
244
Which portion of the brain and cranial nerve correspond to vision?
The mesencephalon and cranial nerve II
245
Which portion of the brain and cranial nerves correspond to taste?
The myelencephalon and cranial nerves VII, IX, and X
246
Which portion of the brain and cranial nerves correspond to hearing and balance?
The myelencephalon and cranial nerve VIII
247
What are the 3 types of chemoreception?
Olfaction, gustation, and general chemical sense
248
What are the olfactory organs in fishes called?
Nares, which are lined with lamellae to increase surface area
249
What are the sensory receptors involved in gustation?
Taste buds, which can be located anywhere on the body
250
What sensory receptors are involved in general chemical sense?
Relatively low-sensory free nerve endings and spinal nerves
251
How are nares different in teleosts and terrestrial vertebrates?
Terrestrial vertebrates have internal nares, whereas most teleosts have external nares
252
What sense is most important for homing in salmon? How does it work?
Salmon are heavily reliant on olfaction for homing. The odors of streams imprint on them as they outmigrate, and they never forget it
253
What is schreckstoff?
An alarm substance in fish that is released upon injury to warn other fish
254
What two characteristics are unique to ostariophysian fishes?
Schreckstoff and the webarian apparatus
255
Aside from otoliths, what can aid fishes in hearing?
The swim bladder (used as an amplifier), an extra internal gas bubble, or the webarian apparatus ( connects the swim bladder to the inner ear via ossicles)
256
What structure aids in balance in fishes?
Three fluid filled semicircular canals in the inner ear
257
What are the sensors on the lateral line called, and what are they filled with?
Neuromasts, filled with endolymphatic fluid
258
What are the functions of the lateral line?
Detecting pressure waves in water for predator avoidance, prey detection, schooling behavior, and obstacle avoidance
259
What are the main differences between human eyes and fish eyes?
Fish eyes have little density difference between water and air, the iris is not contractible, and they have spherical crystalline lenses for refraction
260
What muscle focuses the eye in teleosts?
The M. retractor lentis, which pulls the lens back to focus on far away objects
261
What muscle focuses the eye in chondricthians?
The M. protractor lentis, which pulls the lens forward to focus on close up objects
262
What specializations do the eyes of the four eyed fish have?
Although they really only have two eyes, each eye has a dorsal cornea for aerial vision and a ventral cornea for aquatic vision, and an ellipsoid lens, the short axis for aerial vision and the long axis for aquatic vision
263
What are the two fields of vision fishes possess?
Binocular (for anterior vision) and monocular (for lateral vision)
264
How does the distance between the lens and the retina differ between binocular and monocular vision?
The distance is small for the monocular field and large for the binocular field
265
What are the 6 ways fish adapt to light/dark?
Changing depth, pigment in cornea or lens, contractile irises, pupillary operculi, nictitating membrane, and pigments in the retina
266
What are the two types of receptors in the eye?
Rods (for sensing light/dark) and cones (for sensing color)
267
What is the function of opsins?
To absorb light at different frequencies. The sensitivity of different opsins can be changed to tune vision
268
What is polarized light?
Reflected light that only vibrates in one direction, can be used for prey detection, communication, and navigation
269
Why are eyes so quick to degenerate?
Eyes are expensive to maintain; require a lot of brain power and the retina in the most oxygen-needy tissue
270
What differentiates electroreceptive fishes and non-electroreceptive fishes?
Presence or absence of specialized receptors
271
What differentiates non-electric fishes from electric fishes?
Absence of electric organs and passive electroreception vs presence of electric organs and active electroreception
272
What are passive ampullary electroreceptive organs derived from?
Neuromasts
273
What are the electroreceptive organs in elasmobranchs called?
The ampullae of lorenzini
274
How do sharks use electroreception to aid in orientation?
They sense magnetic fields by perceiving electric current as they move through the field
275
What are receptors in active electroreception called?
Tuberous receptors
276
Why is active electroreception less effective in salt water?
Salt water conducts electricity TOO well
277
What do weakly electric fishes use active electroreception for?
Orientation
278
What do strongly electric fishes use active electroreception for?
For stunning prey
279
What are the 4 shared attributes of fishes with electric organs?
Slow moving or sedentary, nocturnal or inhabiting low-visibility environments, reduced eyes, and thickened skin for insulation
280
What are 3 trends in the brains of electric fishes?
Enlarged cerebellum, enlarged lateral line nerves, and reduced optical and olfactory nerves
281
What is the electric organ in electric eels called, and what's it made of?
Hunter's organ, made of stacks of electrocytes
282
How does electrolocation work?
Mostly present in weakly electric fishes, it works through distorting electric fields
283
What is electrocommunication used for?
Recognition of species and individuals, antagonistic behavior, schooling, and courtship
284
What are the two chromosomal systems we covered and how do they differ?
The XY system (mammals, XY = male, XX = female) and the ZW system (birds, ZW = female, ZZ = male)
285
Which chromosomal system do fishes use?
Both XY and ZW. Fishes can quickly switch between the two
286
Define gonochorism
When species have two completely separate sexes
287
Define hermaphroditism
When an individual of a species can be either sequentially or simultaneously either sex
288
Define simultaneous hermaphroditism
The rare condition in which individuals are both male and female at the same time. They typically fertilize other individuals, but self-fertilization is sometimes possible
289
Define sequential hermaphroditism
When a species begins life as one sex and can change to the other
290
Define protandry
Beginning life as a male with the capability of switching to female
291
Define protogyny
Beginning life as a female with the capability of switching to male
292
What are gynogenteic females?
Females of a triploid species that lay triploid eggs that are activated by the sperm of a related species
293
What are hybridogenetic females?
Females of a diploid species that lay haploid eggs with only the maternal genome that are fertilized by the sperm of a related species
294
What two things are key in determining fitness (lifetime reproductive success) of a species?
Longevity and fecundity
295
What are equilibrium strategists?
Fishes that live in a stable environment, have a long lifespan, produce few, large offspring, and invest lots of parental care. Example: sharks, rays, coral reef fishes
296
What are opportunistic strategists?
Fishes that live in frequently and unpredictably disturbed but productive habitats, short lived, produce many small offspring with little parental care, and rapid population growth. Example: guppies, small clupeids
297
What are periodic strategists?
Fishes that live in a predictably changing environment, long lived and highly fecund with early life history mortality higher than adult mortality. Example: Rockfishes
298
Define iteroparity
A reproduction strategy that involves repeated reproduction after maturation
299
Define semelparity
A reproduction strategy that involves reproducing once before dying
300
Define oviparity
The method of laying eggs that develop and hatch outside of the body. Can be pelagic (free floating) or demersal (substrate bound)
301
What are the three types of parental care associated with demersal eggs?
Brood hiders, guarders, and bearers
302
Define ovoviviparity
The method of keeping eggs inside the mother's body until hatching, but with no direct connection to or nutrients from the mother
303
Define viviparity
The method of bearing live offspring that develop inside the mother's body and have a direct connection to receive nutrients from her
304
What modified fins do members of chondricthyes have that assist in fertilization?
Claspers
305
What are the three types of pseudoplacental connection in viviparity?
Villi of the ovaries connecting to the skin of the embryos, branchial placentas (ovarian tissue makes contact with gills of the embryo), and trophotaenia (extrusions from the hindgut of embryos)
306
What are the synapomorphies of chordata?
A notochord, pharyngeal (gill) slits, and a post-anal tail for some part of the life cycle
307
Explain urochordata
"tail" + "chord", tunicates and relatives, sessile adults with free-swimming larvae, descendent groups may have evolved from larvae
308
Explain cephalochordates
"head" + "chord", notochord extends to front end of the body in front of the brain
309
What do cephalochordates have in common with fishes?
A fusiform body for swimming, muscles in V-shaped blocks, a distinct head, paired gills, and a notochord
310
How are cephalochordates different from fishes?
No biomineralization--no cranium or vertebrae, no bone, no dentine, no scales
311
When did vertebrates first appear?
During the cambrian explosion
312
How many years ago did the first vertebrates appear?
500-450 million years ago
313
What are the two hypotheses on extant jawless fishes?
The vertebrate hypothesis and the cyclostome hypothesis
314
Explain the cyclostome hypothesis
The hypothesis on the placement of lampreys that states that lampreys are more closely related to hagfishes than jawed fishes
315
What characteristics do lampreys share with hagfishes?
No jaws, no gill arches, single median nostril, no paired fins, never had bone, and a cartilaginous skeleton
316
Explain the vertebrate hypothesis
The hypothesis on the placement of lampreys that states that lampreys are more closely related to vertebrates than hagfishes
317
What characteristics do lampreys share with jawed fishes?
2-3 semicircular canals, neural and haemal arches, neuromasts in the lateral line, eye muscles, nervous regulation of the heart, and osmoregulation
318
What are the characteristics of agnatha?
Not monophyletic, jawless, the earliest vertebrates
319
What are the major groups of agnatha?
Mixinomorphi, petromyzontomorphi, and the ostracoderms (extinct)
320
What are the major characteristics of the myxiniformes?
Mucous glands (myxin means slime), no fins, jawless, barbels present around mouth, keratinous "teeth" on tongues, degenerated eyes
321
What are the major INTERNAL characteristics of the myxiniformes?
A rudimentary cranium, no gill arches, no true vertebrae, a partially open circulatory system with 4 rudimentary hearts, and an osmoconforming system
322
What are the characteristics of the reproductive systems of myxinomorphi?
Each individual has both ovaries and testes though only one is active, hooks attach eggs to substrate, juvenile hagfish have never been seen, iteroparous
323
When did ostracoderms first appear?
The first major vertebrate radiation, 460 million years ago
324
What are the cmorphological characteristics of ostracoderms?
No jaws, no pelvis fins, small, bony armor, dorso-ventrally flattened, and well-formed cartilaginous
325
What are the functional characteristics of ostracoderms?
Bottom dwellers, filter-feeders, heteroceral and hypoceral tails to push off the bottom, moved like tadpoles, gills exclusively for filter feeding
326
What are some characteristics of ostracoderm armor?
Plates around head, scale-like around body, first bone in the fossil record, dermal bone only, for proection from predators
327
What are some characteristics of petromyzontomorphi?
Anadromous or freshwater, parasitic or non-feeeding as adults, larval ammocytes--filter feeders
328
What are the internal anatomical characteristics of lampreys?
Well-developed neural arches, osmoregulation, neuromasts, cartilaginous skeletons, well-developed cranium, no gill arches, gill pouches, two semicircular canals, single median nostril, partly open circulatory system with one heart
329
What are the external anatomical characteristics of lampreys?
An oral disc, no jaws, tooth-like plates of keratin, 7 pairs of gill slits, eyes well developed in adults, eel-like, naked body
330
What are the life history characteristics of lampreys?
Separate sexes, 2 distinct life stages (ammocoete larva and adult), larva live up to 5 years, adults live for ~2 years and migrate to spawn, anadromous, semelparous
331
Are lampreys truly parasites?
No, because the hosts are seriously harmed. They're really just predators
332
What are conodonts?
Mysterious fossilized hard parts about 1mm in size, highly diverse and abundant, have bone, dentin, and enameloid (similar to enamel), very early evolution of bone
333
What are the characteristics of the phylum gnathostomata?
Jawed vertebrates, 99% of all vertebrates, jaws, endochondral bone, teeth, paired appendages, 3 semicircular canals, myelinated neurons
334
What are the 4 major groups of gnathostomata?
Placoderms ("plate-skinned fishes"), chondrichthyes ("cartilaginous fishes"), Acanthodii ("spiny sharks"), and osteichthyes (bony fishes)
335
When did placodermi rise then peak?
It rose in the ordovician period and peaked in the devonian period
336
What is the main synapomorphy of placodermi?
A ring of interlocking plates around the shoulder region
337
What are the main characteristics of placodermi?
Dermal bone, exoskeleton, endochondral bone, paired fins, powerful jaws, predatory, ecologically diverse, hinge on head for jaw flexibility, lack jaw suspensorium
338
What structures did placoderms lack?
True teeth, possibly a paired gas bladder/lungs,
339
What likely led to the demise of placoderms?
Competition with other predators, namely sharks, who could move faster and were far more mobile
340
When did the class chondrichthyes start to appear?
400 million years ago
341
What are the 2 subclasses of chondrichthyes?
Holocephali (which is less diverse) and elasmobranchii
342
What are the common features of chondrichthyes?
A cartilaginous skeleton, placoid scales, no gas bladder, a spiral valve in the intestine, internal fertilization, and osmoregulation by retention of urea
343
What order is in the subclass holocephali?
Chimaeriformes (chimaeras, ratfish)
344
What divisions are in the subclass elasmobranchii?
Selachimorpha (sharks, galeomorphi and squalimorphi) and batoidea/batimorpha (skates and rays)
345
What are the characteristics of holocephali?
Holostylic jaw suspension (palatoquadrate fused with cranium), single gill opening that covers gill 4 slits, continually growing teeth, and a rostrum heavily lined with Ampullae of Lorenzini
346
What are the 5 reproductive features of holocephali?
Frontal tenaculum, two pre-pelvic tenacula, and two claspers
347
What are the external characteristics of elasmobranchi?
5-7 gill openings, spiracle (primitive gill slit), placoid scales, upper jaw not fused to cranium, lower jaw suspended (hyostylic), a subterminal mouth, replicating teeth, and pelvic claspers for mating
348
What are the sensory features of elasmobranchi?
Highly developed olfaction, good vision with mainly rods, good hearing with no otoliths but instead granules in the matrix, electroreception through the ampullae of lorenzini, a good lateral line system, an a large brain
349
What are the features of mating in elasmobranchi?
Males have pelvic claspers (not homologous with placoderm claspers), and mating is costly. they're slow to grow and mature, have long gestation, often years between birth cycles, huge investment in a limited number of offspring, and have well-developed offspring
350
Define oophagy
An occurrence in ovoviviparity where embryo eat unfertilized eggs
351
Define embryophagy
An occurrence in ovoviviparity where embryos eat each other
352
What are some features of selachimorpha that batiomorpha don't have?
Pectoral fins not fused to the head, gill openings on the side, a small lateral spiracle, and an anal fin present
353
What are some features of batiomorpha that selachimorpha don't have?
Pectoral fins fused to the head, ventral gill openings, large dorsal spiracle, and no anal fin
354
What 4 orders are in squalimorphi?
Hexanchiformes, pristiophoriformes, squatiniformes, and squaliformes
355
What 4 orders are in galeomorphi?
Heterodontiformes, lamniformes, orectolobiformes, and carcharhiniformes
356
What are the rajiformes?
Skates. Oviparous, make up more than half of batiomorpha
357
What are the rays?
5 orders, viviparous, "nested" within skates
358
What are the characteristics of the class Acanthodii?
The "spiny sharks," have jaws, dentine tipped scales, large eyes, stout spines on all fins, fed in water column
359
When did the spiny sharks live?
440 million years ago
360
What characteristics do spiny sharks share with sharks?
Structure of jaw (derived from Meckel's cartilage), girll arches, and pectoral fins
361
What characteristics do spiny sharks share with bony fishes?
Bony operculum, branchiostygal rays, 3 pairs of otoliths, and bony support of fins
362
When did osteichthyes first start to appear?
416 million years ago
363
What are the 2 major groups of osteichthyes?
Sarcopterygii and actinopterygii
364
What are the characteristics of osteichthyes?
Bone, bony scales, lepidotrichia (form soft rays of fins), and lungs/swim bladder
365
What did the swim bladder evolve from?
Lungs
366
Define lepidotrichia
The dermal bone origins of soft fin rays
367
Define the class sarcopterygii
The lobe finned fishes, monophyletic group, more closely related to tetrapods than to other fishes, largely extinct, highly derived extant species
368
What are the synapomorphies of sarcopterygii?
Large lobed fins, enamel on the teeth, and cosmoid scales
369
How are lobed fins different from rayed fins?
The fins are thick and fleshy with more, large bones to support them
370
What are the two subclasses of sarcopterygii?
Actinista (coelacanthiformes) and dipnoi (lungfish)
371
When did the subclass actinista start to appear?
70 million years ago
372
What are the characteristics of actinista?
Hollow spines, little known about biology, thought to be extinct
373
Who discovered the first coelacanth and what was it later named?
Marjorie Courtenay-Latimer. It was later named Latimeria chalmunae
374
What are the external characteristics of coelacanths?
A diphyceral tail (symmetrical, "three lobes," vertebrae extend all the way through), external nostrils, and large, bony scales
375
What are the behavioral characteristics of coelacanths?
Live 140-400m deep, rest in caves during the day, feed on fish and sharks at night, don't walk along bottom, upside down orientation?
376
What are the internal characteristics of coelacanths?
Ovoviviparous, larvae start on yolk sac, yolk sac turns into primitive umbilical through which nutrients are transferred, urea in blood
377
Define the subclass dipnoi
The lungfishes, elongate bodies, continuous dorsal-anal-caudal fins
378
What are the 3 families of dipnoi?
Ceratodontidae (Aus), Lepidosirenidae (S. Am), and Protopteridae (African)
379
What are the characteristics of dipnoi?
A diphyceral tail, continuous dorsal-anal-caudal fins, maxilla and premaxilla absent, branchiostegal rays absent, and lungs
380
What are the life history characteristics of dipnoi?
Lay eggs in muddy bank, males defend nest, babies look like salamander tadpoles with external gills
381
Define estivation
The process in which lungfish burrow in mud, secrete mucus to create a cocoon, drop their metabolism, consume little oxygen, metabolize muscles, and build up urea for up to four years in order to survive dry stretches of time where their habitats lack water
382
Are lungfish more closely related to tetrapods or coelacanths?
Tetrapods
383
What species gave rise to the tetrapods?
Tiktaalik roseae
384
What are the three most important trends in teleost evolution?
Shift in position of paired fins, increased spininess, and expansion of premaxilla and development of ascending process
385
What three orders make up elopomorpha and what unites them?
Elopiformes (tarpon), albuliformes (bonefishes) and eels (anguilliformes), they both have leptocephalus larvae
386
What are leptocephalus larvae?
Extremely thin, transparent larvae. Large teeth but it's unclear what they feed on
387
What are the characteristics of elopiformes and albuliformes?
Cycloid scales, forked tails, leptocephalus larvae, live in shallow marine habitat, usually tropical or sub-tropical
388
What are the characteristics of anguiliformes?
Lack pelvic fins and sometimes pectorals, deeply embedded cycloid scales or no scales at all, no gill rakers, usually marine but sometimes catadromous
389
What are the characteristics of saccophyrngiformes?
The gulper eels, not true eels. No opercular bones, no branchiostegals, no maxilla, no premaxilla, no vomer, no paraspenoid, no scales, no paired fins, no ribs, no gas bladder, and unique neuromasts. These are the most anatomically modified vertebrates.
390
What order is the most anatomically modified order of vertebrates?
Saccophyrngiformes, the gulper eel
391
What orders make up osteoglossimorpha?
Hiodontiformes and osteoglossiformes
392
What family is contained in the order hiodontiformes?
Hiodontidae, the mooneyes
393
What 5 families are contained in the order osteoglossiformes?
Osteoglossidae (the arowanas), Notopteridae (the old world knifefishes), Mormyridae (the elephant fishes), Gymnarchidae (the aba), and Pantodontidae (the butterflyfish)
394
What is the most important defining feature of osteoglossiformes?
A bony tongue not found in other fishes.
395
What are the two components of the bony tongues of osteoglossiformes?
The glossohyal plate in the floor of the mouth and the parasphenoid on top
396
What are the defining features of osteoglossiformes?
Many vertebrae, many breathe air, no intramuscular bones, reduced number of caudal rays, and a mix of fused and unfused hypurals
397
Which two families of osteoglossiformes are weakly electric?
Mormyridae (the elephant fishes) and gymnarchidae (the aba)
398
What are the two major groups of otocephala?
Clupeiformes and ostariophysii
399
What are the two main families of clupeiformes?
Clupidae (herrings, shad, sardines) and engraulidae (anchovies)
400
What is the main synapomorphy of clupeiformes?
A direct connection between the swim bladder and the ear to enhance hearing
401
What id the largest fishery in the world?
The Peruvian anchoveta, Engraulis ringes
402
What are the main characters of clupeiformes?
Silvery scales, a compressed body form, a flexible mouth, and fine gill rakers
403
What creates the reflective, silvery color in the skin of clupeiformes?
Guanine crystals
404
What percentage of all fishes, and what percentage of freshwater fishes, does ostariophysi encompass?
25% of all fishes, 75% of freshwater fishes
405
What are the characteristics of ostariophysi?
Schreckstoff substance, a 2 chamber swim bladder, breeding tubercles, an extensible upper jaw for suction feeding, pelvic fins in the abdominal position, pharyngeal teeth, and the webarian apparatus
406
What is the Webarian apparatus?
The bones connecting the swim bladder to the ear
407
What are the characteristics of cypriniformes (carp and minnows)?
A protrusible upper jaw, the kinethmoid bone in the jaw, a toothless mouth, scaleless heads, and no adipose fin
408
What are the characteristics of siluriformes (catfishes)?
No scales, barbels, and presence of an adipose fin
409
What are the characteristics of characiformes (tetras and pirhanas)?
Well-developed teeth, a non-protrusible mouth, and presence of an adipose fin
410
What are the characteristics of the gymnotiformes (new world knifefishes)?
Weakly electric and undulation with anal fin
411
What does "pre-acanthomorph" mean?
Pre spiny finned, AKA the soft rayed euteleosts
412
What are the characteristics of pre-acanthomorpha?
Basal characteristics, no spines, short dorsal and anal fins, pectoral fins low and horizontal, abdominal pelvic fins, a short premaxilla, a toothy maxilla, cycloid scales, and sometimes an adipose fin
413
What are the esociformes?
Pikes and pickerels, freshwater fishes of the northern hemisphere
414
What are the salmoniformes?
Salmon and trout, landlocked or anadromous fishes of the northern hemisphere
415
What are the galaxiiformes?
The freshwater smelts, the sometimes amphidromous fishes of the southern hemisphere
416
What are the argentiformes?
The marine smelts and deep sea oddities
417
What are the aulopiformes?
The lizardfishes and deep sea oddities
418
What are the myctophiformes?
The lanternfishes and other deep sea migrators
419
What are the stomiatiiformes?
The dragon fishes and more deep sea oddities
420
What are the special characteristics of the argentiform family Opistoproctidae?
The barreleye fishes have telescoping eyes pointed upward but capable of looking forward, a large lens, no cones, many rods, transparent heads, and sometimes a mirror like diverticulum to simultaneously see upwards and downwards
421
What are the characteristics of the aulopiform family Gigaturidae?
The telescope fishes, no gas bladder, forward facing eyes with no lateral vision, a distensible stomach, a hypocercal tail, and a light skeleton with many missing bones
422
What are the characteristics of the aulopiform family ipnopidae?
The deep sea tripod fishes, reduced eyes with no lens, protogynous hermaphrodites that can self-fertilize, and elongate pelvic, pectoral, and caudal fins
423
What are the characteristics of the myctophiform family myctophidae?
The lanternfishes. Extreme abundance and special photophores that don't rely on bioluminescent bacteria
424
What are the characteristics of the stomiatiiform family Gonostomatidae?
The bristlemouths. Extreme abundance, migrators with photophores
425
What are the characteristics of the stomiatiiform family Sternopthychidae?
The hatchetfishes. Photophores and tube shaped eyes
426
What are the characteristics of the stomiatiiform family stomiidae?
The viperfishes and dragonfishes. Huge teeth, lie-in-wait predators, and a head that can unhinge from the rest of the body
427
What are the two most important animals to the transfer of nutrients to the deep ocean?
Myctophidae (deep sea lanternfishes) and gonostomatidae (the bristlemouths). Migrate over 1000m daily and are largely responsible for the DSL, the deep scattering layer
428
Approximately how many times did bioluminescence evolve independently?
27
429
What are the two ways bioluminescent fishes produce light?
About half create their own light and the other half utilize bacterial symbiosis
430
What does "acanthomorpha" mean?
"spiny morphs"
431
What are the characters of acanthomorpha?
Spines in the fin (often leading spines), most other characteristics are derived, intra-group relationships are a mess
432
Why is the phylogeny of acanthomorpha so difficult to figure out?
Adaptive radiation created bursts of speciation to rapidly fill new niches, speciation happened so quickly that there wasn't enough time to develop synapomorphies, which leads to unresolved relationships
433
What are the trend in acanthomorph reef fishes?
Trophic innovations--diverse feeding mechanisms (like labridae, the parrotfishes), lateral compression (like chaetodontidae, the butterfly fishes), miniaturization (like gobiidae, the gobies), and symbiosis (like pomacentrdae, the damsels and anenome fishes)
434
What are the characteristics of gadiformes?
Cod. Usually one barbel on the chin, predominantly marine, very commercially important
435
What are the characteristics of cottoidae?
Sculpins, snailfish, poachers. Benthis and deep-sea, temperate to arctic climate, either spiny and armored or naked and soft
436
What are the characteristics of pleuronectiformes?
Asymmetrical as adults with a blind side and an upper side, can be dextral (eyes on the right) or sinistral (eyes on the left)
437
What are the subgroups of scorpaeniformes?
Scorpionfishes and rockfishes
438
What are the defining characteristics of the scorpionfishes?
Often venomous, masters of camouflage
439
What are the defining characteristics of the rockfishes?
Very long-lived, periodic strategists, commercially important, and vulnerable to overfishing
440
How are some members of gobiidae adapted to spending time outside the water?
Mudskippers live and breed in mud burrows and can breathe through their skin and the lining of their mouths and throats, and rock climbing gobies have specially modified fins that allow them to scale rocks
441
How are some members of anabantoidae adapted to spending time outside of the water?
Labyrinth fishes have a labyrinth organ, a highly modified first gill arch with many folds that allows them to breathe air, and the climbing perch, which uses the operculum in synchrony with fins
442
What's unique about the life history strategies of acanthomorph family syngnathidae?
The pipefishes, sea horses, and sea dragons all have a high degree of male parental care
443
What's unique about the life history strategies of acanthomorph order lophiiformes?
The anglerfishes and frogfishes have parasitic males
444
What's unique about the life history strategy of the acanthomorph family cichlidae?
The females are mouth-brooders
445
What makes some of the body plans in acanthomorph order tetradontidae so extreme?
These are the molas, pufferfishes, boxfishes, and triggerfishes. They can have fused maxillas and premaxillas, no ribs, a single hypural plate, pelvic fins extremely reduced or completely lost, scales reduced or lost, or caudal fin lost (mola)
446
What is the class actinopterygii?
The ray finned fishes, monophyletic, very diverse, contains 96% of all fishes
447
What are the synapomorphies of actinopterygii?
Ganoid scales in ancestral fishes, fins are predominantly rays throughout, the rays attach to radials, the radials are anchored in the scupulo-coracoid, and a single dorsal fin in ancestral fishes
448
For what two reasons is it difficult to compare fin components across groups?
Parts making up the radial/endoskeletal domains are not homologous and fin rays in sharks are not homologous with those of osteichthyes
449
What are the proportions of actinopterygii fins?
The fins are mostly rays
450
What are the fin proportions of sarcopterygii fins?
The fins are mostly endoskeletal domain
451
What are the proportions of chondrichthyes fins?
The fins are evenly split between rays and endoskeletal domain
452
What is the order polypteriformes?
The birchirs and reedfishes, poly = many pteri = appendages, the sister group of all other ray finned fishes
453
What are the external characteristics of the order polypteriformes?
Ganoid scales, a fused upper jaw, 5-18 dorsal finlets, and pectoral radials that are attached to the "shoulder" via intermediary cartilage
454
What are the internal characteristics of the order polypteriformes?
A spiral valve intestine, paired lungs attached to the gut, respire through gills AND lungs (exclusively lungs in hypoxic water, called recoil respiration), and external gills in larval form
455
What are the characteristics of the order acipenseriformes?
A cartilagenous skeleton, a heterocercal tail, a spiral valve intestine, and an unfused upper jaw
456
What are the two groups of acipenseriformes?
The sturgeon (acipenseridae) and the paddlefish (polyodontidae)
457
What are the characteristics of the acipenseriform family acipenseridae?
The sturgeon are commercially harvested for caviar, have 5 rows of bony scutes, a protrusible subterminal mouth, 4 barbels, and a diet of benthic invertebrates and fishes
458
What are the characteristics of the acipenseriform family polyodontidae?
A long paddle-like snout (rostrum) covered in electrorecptors and a diet of zooplankton
459
What are the external characteristics of the neopterygii order lepisosteiformes?
Elongate cylindrical bodies, a long snouth with sharp teeth, a small maxilla with no supramaxilla, ganoid scales, and a posterior dorsal fins
460
What are the internal characteristics of the neopterygii order lepisosteiformes?
A spiral valve intestine, swim bladders that can be used for air breathing, egss that are toxic to birds and mammals but not other fish, opisthocoelous (ball in socket) vertebrae
461
What are the characteristics of the neotpertygii order amiiformes
This is the amia cava, the bowfin. Located only in the Mississippi river, cycloid scales, a spiral valve intestine, a solid, bony skull, a lung for air gulping, and an abbreviate heterocercal tail
462
In what class does the spiral valve intestine stop appearing?
It slowly is reduced until it's gone completely in teleostei
463
What are the synapomorphies of the class teleostei?
Uroneurals to support the caudal fin, intramuscular bones to add rigidity to the vertebral muscles (epineurals and epiplurals), Basibranchial and ceratobranchial toothplates, pharyngeal teeth, the urohyal in the hyoid apparatus to assist in hyoid coupling, and a mobile premaxilla
464
In approximately what time period did the teleost explosion occur?
The permian/triassic boundary
465
What are the four main hypotheses on the explosive radiation of teleosts?
Continental drift, morphological innovations, the cretaceous mass extinction event, and whole genome duplication
466
What are the factors of the continental drift hypothesis of the teleost explosion?
The formation of large, shallow seas creates more habitable spaces, more complex habitats, and more niches, However, non coral reef lineages also diversified
467
How long ago did the Cretaceous mass extinction event occur and what percentage of species were killed?
65 million years ago, killed 76% of species
468
What are the factors of the Cretaceous mass extinction hypothesis of the teleost explosion?
Lack of species created vacant physical space and empty ecological roles that needed to be filled
469
What are the factors of the whole genome duplication hypothesis of the teleost explosion?
The duplication occurred 320-350 million years ago, long before the explosion, but the increase in redundant genetic material may have allowed for evolutionary flexibility
470
What is studied in biogeography?
The distribution of species (i.e. why are some regions more diverse than others? Why do some groups occur in some areas but not in others with perfectly suitable habitats?)
471
What are considered to be the two main modes of speciation?
Allopatric and sympatric
472
What are the two causes of allopatric speciation?
Vicariance and dispersal
473
Define vicariance
The separation of a species by a new barrier
474
Define dispersal (in the context of speciation)
Chance colonization of new areas, usually by larvae or eggs
475
What drove allopatric speciation in lungfishes?
Vicariance. The three groups were close together in pangea, but when the continents split, a barrier was formed
476
How did the order Cichlidae get to South America?
We... don't really know. The pattern suggests vicariance but the age suggests dispersal
477
What are the two types of biogeographic barriers that can affect dispersal?
Latitudinal (temperature) and longitudinal (hard barriers like land masses or soft barriers like large stretches of open ocean)
478
What two gradients affect fish diversity?
A latitudinal gradient (most diversity is at the equator, least at the poles) and a longitudinal gradient across the indo-pacific ocean (center in northern Australia and oceania, radiates out into less diversity from there)
479
What are the three geographical/physical hypotheses for latitudinal gradients in diversity?
The mid-domain effect, the geographical area hypothesis, and the climate harshness/stability hypothesis
480
What are the two historical?evolutionary hypotheses for latitudinal gradients in diversity?
The historical pertubation hypothesis and the evolutionary rate hypothesis
481
What is the mid-domain effect?
With a random distribution of species, it's statistically more likely that most would end up towards the middle of an area
482
What is the geographical area hypothesis?
The tropics are the largest biome, so naturally, it would make sense for them to have the highest diversity
483
What is the climate harshness?stability hypothesis?
The poles have far harsher and less stable environments that don't allow for much speciation to occur
484
What is the historical pertubation hypothesis?
Temperate and polar regions have been repeatedly made inaccessible by things like ice ages throughout history, so they couldn't be as thoroughly colonized so there has been less time for diversification
485
What is the evolutionary rate hypothesis?
Evolution is faster because of higher temperatures which cause longer breeding seasons, shorter generation times, higher mutation rates
486
What are the 6 zoogeographic regions?
The Indo-Pacific, the West Atlantic, the East Pacific, the East Atlantic, the Mediterranean, and the Arctic/Antarctic
487
What is the approximate worldwide fisheries catch?
100,000,000 tonnes
488
Where do mudskippers lay their eggs?
In an air chamber inside a burrow
489
What is the shortest lived vertebrate?
The dwarf goby Eviota sigillata at ~60 days
490
When a taxonomist determines that two names refer to the same species and need to be lumped together, which name is used?
The principle of priority states that the first name is used
491
What kind of bone makes up the teleost jaw?
Dermal bone
492
Which type of scales doesn't possess a hard, enamel-like coating?
Cycloid/ctenoid
493
What is the ascending process?
A process on the premaxilla that involves moving up and back while maintaining contact with the head
494
Which two groups of fishes do not contain an air filled organ?
Chondrichthyes and agnatha
495
Which two processes allow efficient release of gas from the blood into the swim bladder?
Acidification of blood to release oxygen from hemoglobin an countercurrent exchange in the rete mirable
496
What is barotrauma?
Rapid ascent causing expansion of the swim bladder
497
What is the gas gland in teleosts?
The gland that secretes air from the blood into the swim bladder
498
What are intrinsic sonic muscles that are present in some teleosts?
Muscles in the wall of the swim bladder that can produce sound
499
What is the purpose of egg spots in male cichlids?
To allow fertilization when the mouthbrooding female tries to pick them up
500
What is a stenothermic fish?
A fish with a narrow salinity tolerance
501
How does growth rate change with increasing temperature in most fishes?
It increases to an optimum then declines
502
At what temperature can larval gadids survive longer without food?
At low tempertures
503
Why does growth in many fishes slow down after they mature for the first time?
Because energy is divertted from growth to reproduction
504
Why are hagfishes restricted to marine waters?
They are osmoconformers
505
The first instance of endochondral bone in the evolutionary history of fishes was seen in?
Placoderms
506
What is the fatty organ in the coelacanth?
An organ that replaced the lung
507
What distinguishes Actinopterygii from Sarcopterygii?
Fins that are fully rayed from the base
508
Combining genetic data and info from morphology and coloration, NOAA scientists were able to do what 2 things?
Split one species of snailfishes into two (then into four), split one species of rock sole into three, split one species of rock fishes into two, and increase the number of accurately identified collected in NOAA surveys
509
What kind of jaw suspension do sturgeons have?
Hyostylic
510
Which group of fishes have opisthocoelous vertebrae?
Lepisosteiformes
511
What kind of scales do bowfins have?
Cycloid
512
What is a urohyal bone?
A bone in the floor of the mouth associated with hyoid coupling
513
Why is the Cretaceous mass extinction an unlikely SOLE explanation for the teleost explosion?
Certain major lineages evolved before that
514
How is 18O reated to temperature?
It decreases with rising temperature
515
How can otoliths be used to reconstruct climate patterns?
By estimating annual growth from otoliths from different periods
516
How many otoliths does the typical teleost have?
6
517
What is the best fish?
The dunkleosteus
518
What is the worst fish?
The hagfish
519
Why is it important that we know the life history of fishes?
It can be vital in controlling population by dictating when fisheries can harvest fishes and set controls on fishing in the wild
520
What life history details in fishes are dependent on temperature?
Size of eggs, time of egg hatching, duration of time spent as eggs, success of hatching, size at hatch, larval duration, time to starvation as larvae, size at settlement in juveniles, time of spawning, age of maturity, size at age, and fecundity
521
How do most fishes thermal ranges change throughout their lives until maturation?
Larvae and eggs have a much narrow range of temperature tolerance than juveniles
522
What proteins are responsible for regulating calcification?
Hydrophilic proteins
