Final Exam Flashcards
Gifted
- Traditionally refers to someone with scores on intelligence tests of at least 130
- Exceptional talent must be nurtured
- GIfted children are often more mature and have fewer emotional problems
- As adults they are more satisfied with careers, relationships, and life in general
Convergent and divergent thinking
Intelligence is associated with CONVERGENT THINKING (arriving at one correct answer)
Creativity is associated with DIVERGENT THINKING (aim is novel and unusual lines of thought)
Encourage creativity by
encouraging children to take risks with ideas and think of alternatives
Intellectual disability DSM-V
- Deficits in intellectual functioning
- Concurrent deficits or impairments in adaptive functioning
- Below-average intellectual and adaptive abilities must be evident prior to age 18
Defining and measuring a child’s intellectual disability
- No linger defined on the basis of IQ
- Level of adaptive functioning important
Adaptive functioning
how effectively individuals cope with ordinary life demands and how capable they are of living independently
Broken up into subcategories: Conceptual, Social, Practical, Occupational Skills
Prevalence of intellectual disabilities
1-3% of population
Twice as many males as females among those with mild cases
- More prevalent in children of lower SES, minority groups (especially for mild cases)
- Severe ID equally prevalent in all groups
Genetic and Constitutional factors for Intellectual disability
Chromosomal abnormalities:
- Fragile-X syndrome is the most common inherited ID
- Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes (both associated with abnormality on chromosome 15)
- Down syndrome
Single-gene conditions: inborn errors of metabolism
Adverse biological conditions
FASD
Teratogens
Down Syndrom
- Usually result of failure of the mother’s 21st pair of chromosomes to separate during meiosis
Single-gene conditions that cause intellectual disability
- Inborn errors of metabolism
- Excesses or shortages of certain chemicals that are necessary during
developmental stages - Cause of 3-7% of severe ID cases
Phenylketouria
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Single-gene condition that results in lack of liver enzymes necessary to metabolize phenylalanine.
Can be treated wit diet successfully and prevent ID.
Specific Learning Disorder (DSM V Criteria)
Difficulties learning and using academic skills…presence of at least 1 of the following for 6+ months (despite provision of targeted intervention)
- Inaccurate or slow and effortful word reading
- Difficulty understanding the meaning of what is read
- Difficulty with spelling
- Difficulty with written expression
- Difficulties mastering number sense, number facts, or calculation
- Difficulties with mathematical reasoning
Affected academic skills:
- Substantially bELOW EXPECTED FOR AGE
- Cause significant interference with performance
- Confirmed by individually administered achievement measures and clinical assessment (or documented history after 17 yrs)
Difficulties began during school-age years
Not better accounted for by ID, uncorrected visual or auditory acuity, other mental/neurological siorders, psychosocial adversity, language issues, poor instruction.
Big difference between old and new SLD criteria
Less based on IQ!
Performance is markedly low in one or more areas but with proper support, thiese kids can achieve at an average level
Mild Specific Learning Disorder
Some difficulties in one or two domains. May be able to compensate well when provided accommodations/support.
Moderate Specific Learning Disability
Marked difficulties in one or more domains. Require intervals of intensive intervention, some accomodations or support required for some of the day
Severe Specific Learning Disability
Severe difficlties in one or more somains. Unlikely to learn skills without intensive individualized on-going support for most of school years. Even with support, they may not be able to complete all activities efficiently
Specific learning Disability Specifiers
Mild- moderate-severe With impairment in: - Reading - Written expression - Mathematics
Trouble with defining learning disabilities
DSM 5 criteria is new and different and doesn’t match the criteria from the Learning Disabilities Association of Canada
Association emphasizes:
- processing deficites underly the difficulties in one or more area
- Could result from home life
- Include children that are performing well but only with exceptionnaly intense effort
-
Assessing a Learning Disability
- Background information
- Developmental history, school evaluation, forms from parent and school
- Copies of all reports
- Interview parents, child, teacher if possible
- Rating scales from parents and schoo. - Psychoeducational Testing
- Cognitive/Intelligence
- Academic Achievement
- Processing Measures (as appropriate) in language, phonology, visuomotor, memory, executive functioning, fluency/automaticity
Specific Learning Disability with Impairment in Reading
- Most common underlying feature is the inability to distinguish or separate sounds in spoken words
- Involves difficulty learning basic sight words, such as: the, who, laugh, said
- Core deficits in reading disorders are in decoding rapidly enough to read the whole word - coupled with problems reading single, small words
Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Written Expression
- Writing disorders are often associated with problems with eye/hand coordination (leads to poor handwriting)
- Children with writing disorders (1) produce shorter, less interesting, and poorly organized essays; (2) are less likely to review spelling, punctuation, and grammar to increase clarity.
Specific Learning Disability with Impairment in Mathematics
- Difficulty in recognizing numbers and symbols, memorizing facts, aligning numbers, and understanding abstract concepts
- May include problems in comprehending abstract concepts or n visual-spatial ability
- Involved core deficits in arithmetic calculation and/or mathematics reasoning abilities
Prevalence and Course of Specific Learning Disorders
- about 2-10% of population
- SLD with reading difficulties 5-17% of kids
- may be part of a spectrum of abilities, rather than a discrete phenomenon
- SLD with math impairment is 20% of children with LDs.
- SLD with impaired written expression is rare on its own, but overlaps more with other disorders (especially math because of difficulty recognizing symbols)
Biological Causes of Learning Disabilities
- Difficulties bringing information from various brain regions together to integrate and understand information
- Recent findings suggest two distinguishable types of reading disorder (children who are persistently-poor and children who can improve with intensive phonics help)
- Heritability accounts for 60% of variance in reading disorders
- Particular problems in the AUDITORY ASSOCIATION AREA
Social and Psychosocial Causes of Learning Disabilities
- Co-occurring emotional disturbances and other signs of poor adaptive ability
- Dyslexia/ADHD overlap 30-70% of the time
- Some children with learning disorders show symptoms of ADHD
Prevention and treatment of learning disorders
- Interventions rely primarily on educational and psychosocial methods
- No biological treatments exist
- Issues of identification exist because there is a brief window of opportunity for successful treatment
- Prevention involves training children in phonological awareness activities at an early age
Instructional methods for learning disabilities
- Direct instruction is best for children with LDs
- Early interventions must address phonological and verbal abilities
- Effective reading instruction focuses on: phonemic awareness, decoding, word recognition fluency, constructing meaning, vocab, spelling, writing
Adaptations for children with LDs
Use of calculator Speech to text software software to read to student out loud extra time note taker
Language - definition
A system that relates sounds (or gestures) to meaning
5 elements of spoken languages
1) Phonology
2. Morphology
3. Semantics
4. Syntax
5. Pragmatics
Phonology / phoneme
sounds of a language
sounds that are the building blocks of language
Morphology
morpheme
rules of meaning within language
smallest unit of meaning in a language
semantics
study of words and their meanings
syntax
rules that specify how words are combines in sentences
pragmatics
how people use language to communicate effectively
baby perception of speech
- phonemes
they can hear phonemes that are not in their language. THis ability disappears by about 12 months of age.
baby perception of speech
- words
Infants can identify individual words and distinguish them. They pay more attention to stressed syllables
Infant directed speech may help children learn language
Infant directed speech
This is like baby talk.
Exaggerated changes in how loud you are and pitch playing on how babies pay more attention to stressed sounds.
First steps to speech
2 months -
6 months -
8-11 months -
Around first birthday -
2 months - cooing
6 months - babbling
8-11 months - babbling that includes intonation
Around first birthday - first words
cooing (what, when)
vowel-like sounds; 2 months
babbling (what, when)
speech-like sound that has no meaning; 6 months
intonation (what, when)
rising or falling pitch
babbling includes intonation around 8-11 months. It is influenced by the speech they hear
Understanding that words are symbols
- infants understand that words are symbols (something that stands for something else)
- children start to use gestures around the same time they start to talk (sometimes before they know words)
Naming explosion (3)
Learn new words much more rapidly than before
children learn new words too rapidly to be starting form scratch on each one
they are fast mapping
fast mapping
learning word meanings so rapidly that the child can’t be considering all possible meaninings
How does rapid word learning happen (4)
- joint attention
- constraints on word names
- sentence cues
- cognitive growth
joint attention
when toddlers touch or look at an object and adult names it for them. They both pay attention to the same object at the same time.
parents simplify by using one words to classify a number of objects
constraints on word names (3)
1) different rules for learning new words. If unfamiliar word is used in context of objects where some have names and some don’t, the child will attribute the new word tot he object that doesn’t have a name yet
2) name refers to whole objects and to all objects of the same type.
3) If an object that already has a name and is presented with a new name, this new word represents a subcategory
sentence cues
more knowledge that children get, the more they can figure out
cognitive growth (word learning)
thinking becomes more sophisticated, new rules, find errors.
underextension
naming error
defining a word too narrowly
overextension
naming error
defining a word too broadly
individual differences in word learning
- wide range in vocabulary development largely accounted for by (1) the child’s environment and (2) the child’s phonological memory
phonological memory
the ability to remember speech sounds briefly
word learning styles
referential
expressive
referential style of word learning
vocabularies consist mainly of words that name objects, persons, or actions
children use language primarily as an intellectual tool
expressive style of word learning
vocabularies include many social phrases that are used as a single word
eg. Go away / I want it
children use language primarily as a social tool
encouraging word learning (3)
- speak WITH children (not at them)
- Name objects that are the focus of child’s attention, use speech that uses different words, and respond promptly to child.
- Read books and as children open-ended questions
does watching TV benefit word learning
No evidence
Sesame street helps children learn words because it’s interactive
Benefits of educational TV are greatest when children watch with adults
Impact of bilingual education on language development (2)
- Bilingual children learn as rapidly as monolinguals
- Bilingual children are often more skilled at switching back and forth between tasks and inhibit inappropriate responses
The best method of teaching immigrant children
is a combination of the child’s native language and the local language
Learning other symbolds (beyond words and gestures)
Trend
8 months
3 yrs
Other symbolic forms
- children learn other symbol systems as they grow, such as pictures and scale models
18 months - understand that photos are REPRESENTATIONS of objects
3 yrs - understand relationship between scale models and objects that represent
other symbolic forms learned later (include maps, graphs, musical notation)
telegraphic speech
telegraphic speech: in 2-year-olds
“want milk, “play blocks”
development of complex sentences
gradaually add grammatical morphemes (words of endings of words that make a sentence grammatical);
Mastery of grammar by rule-based learning, so errors of over-regularization occur (“two mans)
For approaches to how children acquire grammar
1) behaviourist
2) linguistic
3) cognitive
4) social interaction
Linguistic approach to mastering grammar
- how do we know (what children do and brain) (2)
- the approach (3)
- Language input is important but learning is more than just imitation - children produce novel sentences and children’s speech has its own grammar
- there are specific regions in the brain for different language functions. Broca’s area (left-frontaL) active for combining words into meaningful sentences
- Language and grammar are mastered in the context of social interactions, even with little or no language input
- Critical period: up to 12 years of age
- Development of vocabulary and grammar are closely related, suggesting both are part of a common system
Language: Taking turns
- Even before children speak, parents model turn-taking (not in some non-Western cultures)
- By 3 yrs - spontaneous turn-taking occurs (conversational babbling)
- By 3 yrs - children will try to elicit a response if listener fails to respond.
Speaking effectively
- Toddlers (1)
- Preschoolers (2)
- School-age (1)
- Toddlers’ first conversations are about themselves
- Preschoolers adjust their speech based on the age of needs of the listener and context
- Preschoolers understand that when listeners misunderstand, the speaker needs to do something
Listening well / believing speaker / understanding ambiguities
Preschoolers often don’t detect ambiguities in messages or they assume they understood the speaker’s intent.
They are more likely to believe confusing statements, or those that contradict their beliefs when told by a parent instead of a classmate.
Understanding non-literal meaning (sarcasm and metaphor) develops slowly
Using gestures to communicate
Gesture use varies between cultures. (shaking hands, bowing)
We can use gestures to communicate emotions. Gestures communicate the ‘right now’, present tense.
signed languages (4)
- Arbitrary units - signs do not have to be iconic.
- Structured and meaningful. Grammatical rules must be followed
- Displacement - Can be used to discuss events displaces in time/place
- Generativity - Can be used to create an infinite number of new utternaces
Evidence for signed language development
- they develop the same way spoken languages do (babbling, naming explosion, telegraphic speech)
- There is a critical period for acquiring signed languages
- They seem to be acquired earlier than spoken languages
Early signs of language issues and phonological awareness
Early language problems are highly predictive of subsequent communication and learning disorders and should not be ignored.
deficits in phonology are a chief reason that children develop communication and learning (80% children use phonemes properly by 7yrs)
Warning signs of communication disorders
- use gestures rather than speech
- difficulty with verbal expression
- Problems segmenting words into phonemes
- Difficulty naming
- Difficulty producing speech sounds
- Late or slow speech development
- Limited vocab, short sentences, simple grammar
- Difficulty articulating words (wabbit)
- Fluency/timing of speech is irregular
- Repetition of sounds or prolonging speech sounds
- Difficulty understanding
Communication Disorders
- Speech sound disorder (producing speech sounds)
- Stuttering/Child-onset fluency disorder
- Language disorder - using language to communicate
- Social (pragmatic) Communication Disorder - using communication socially
communication disorders are developmentally connected to later onset of
learning disorders
Language Disorder
- Characterized by deficits in expression despite normal comprehension of speech.
- Occurs when language matures at least 12 months behind child’s chronological age
- Children with LD often have delayed speech development; limited vocab; speech marked by short sentences and simple grammatical structure
- Linguistic abilities will vary by area.
- Speech sound disorder - difficulty articulating or sond prod
Diagnostic criteria for language disorder (DSM V)
Persistent difficulties in acquisition and use of language across modalities (spoken, written, sign, other) due to deficits in comprehension or production
- Reduced vocab
- limited sentence structure
- Impairments in discourse
substantially below expected for age, resulting in functional limitations and effective:
- communication
- social participation
- academic achievement
- occupational performance
Onset in early developmental period and not due to another impairment
Prevalence and course of language disorder
- affects 7% of younger school-aged children
- Communication disorders identified twice as often in boys than girls
- Most children acquire normal language by adolescence (50% totally outgrow problems)
- Associated with higher than normal rates of negative behaviours
Causes of language disorder (4)
- Genetic: heritable to a significant degree
- Brain: problems in connections between brain areas and less brain activity in left temporal region (language)
- Recurrent middle ear infections in first year of life may lead to speech and language delays
- Home env - unlikely caused by parents except in cases of extreme neglect
Treatment of language disorders
- LD and similar disorders usually self-correct by age 6 and may not require special intervention
- Strategies for parents to stimulate language dev: enroll in specialized preschool with computer/teacher-assisted instruction to teach early academic skills
- build on child’s existing strengths
Childhood onset fluency disorder
Repeated and prolonged pronunciation of certain syllables that interferes with communication
Childhood onset fluency disorder: prevalence and course
- gradual onset bt ages 2 and 7; peaks at age 5
- about 3% of children affected
- Affects males about three times more often
- 80% of those who stutter before age 5 stop after a year in school
Childhood onset fluency disorder: causes
- Genetic factors account for 70% of variance in causes
- Environmental factors account for remaing influences
Childhood onset fluency disorder: possible treatments
- Parental changes - speak to child slowly in short sentences
- contingency management procedure (rewards for completing sentence/story without stutter)
- Habit reversal procedures (when they get a sense that it about to happen they should engage in an incompatible behaviour)
social (pragmatic) communication disorder
- new addition to DSM-5
- persistent difficulties in pragmatics (social use of language and communication)
Functions of emotions (4)
- Help people adapt to their environment
- Perform regulatory functions
- Link various brain systems to form state of mind
- Connects ones mint to another in interpersonal relationships
3 elements of emotions
- A subjective feeling - involves cognitive processes such as appraisal of evaluation of meaning
- A physiological change - endocrine, autonomic, and cardiovascular changes
- An overt behaviour
Basic emotions
happiness anger surprise interest disgust sadness fear
Process of experiencing emotions (4)
- Pay attention
- Appraise (what you should do)/ Arousal (physiological feelings that drive your behaviour) - experience of primary emotion
- Differentiation and categorical emotions
- Affect and mood
affect
whatever you are feeling in the moment. Physiological manifestations of emotions
mood
how you feel over time
generally constant in people due to temperment and reinforcement over time
expression of emotions
non verbal behaviour is the primary mode in which emotion is communicated.
- facial expression
- Eye gaze
- Tone of voice
- Bodily motion
- Timing and intensity of the response
expression of emotions and modern technology
we lose a lot of the non verbal communications tof emotions and this can lead to confusion when we talk through text
Newborns only experience ______ basic emotions:
2: pleasure and disgust/distress
milestones for experiencing and expressing emotions
2-3 months: happiness 4-6 months: anger 6 months: fear 8-9 months: all basic emotions 18-24 months: complex emotions (pride, shame, guilt, embarrassment) 7 years: regret
cultural differences in emotional expression
cultures differ in terms of:
- display rules
- Events that trigger emotions
though we can accurately categorize emotions across cultures and individuals, it doesn’t mean that one person’s categorical emotion is the same as another;s
recognizing others’ emotions
Infants begin to distinguish facial expressions associated with different emotions by 4-6 months of age.
Shown by the fact that they often match their emotions to others
Like adults, infants are biased to negative emotions and pay attention to them longer
social referencing
process by which a child looks to the facial expressions and other nonverbal aspects of a parent’s signals to determine how to feel and respond in an ambiguous situation
social referencing milestones
12 months - children use this process to help direct their behaviour (visual cliff - mom makes fear face or smile)
18 months - children demonstrate preferences for certain kind of emotional information
Understanding emotions (milestones)
By kindergarten, children understand that undesirable events often make a person feel angry or sad
By elementary school, children understand that people can have mixed feelings
learning display rules
children also learn these through (1) social learning and (2) through positive rewarding familial relationships
positive familial relationships include making it okay for child to show all emotions and so they are able to learn to regulate them better
regulation of emotions
Begins in infancy.
By 24 mo, toddlers have learned how to direct emotions to meet some needs, but still rely on help from adults.
As children age, they rely less on adults for support in regulating emotions. They use mental strategies more to match particular setting (public, vs private emotional regulation)
emotions needs for fear, sadness and anger
label - need - action tendency
fear - safety&protectoin - run/hide
sadness - comfort - hug
anger - a boundary - defend the boundary
what is temperment?
pattern of emotion and behavioural styles that is evident in the first few weeks after life and is fairly stable across situations, and is biologically based.
different dimensions of temperment
activity level biological rhythm approach/withdrawal adaptability intensity of reaction quality of mood persistent/attention span distractibility theshold of responsiveness
thomas and Chess: patterns of temperment
they proposed that temperment has different dimensions and patterns.
Children were either:
easy, difficult, or slow-to-warm up
now these three classifications are mapped onto different dimensions
easy temperment
calm, relaxed, happy, and cheerful, predictable routines, and flexible
difficult temperment
Irritable, fussy, upset easily, unpredictable/irregular schedules, intense responses to new situations
slow-to-warm up temperment
Often unhappy, cautious and sometimes fussy, do not like new situations, but warm up to new stimuli with repeated exposure.
rothbart: three dimensions of temperment
Surgency/extraversion - extent to which a child is generally happy, active, vocal, and regularly seeks interesting stimulation
negative affect - the extent to which a child is angry, fearful, frustrated, shy, and not easily soothed
effortful control 0 the extent to which a child can focus attention, is not easily distracted, and can inhibit responses
emotions: nature
HEREDITY - identical twins more alike than fraternal twins. Negative affect most influence by heredity. Bigger impact on temperment in childhood than infancy.
emotions: nurture
ENVIRONMENT - Infants are less emotional when parents are responsive. Environment appears to be particularly important for positive emotions.
emotions: nature x nurture
Temperment influences susceptibility to environmental influence.
children with particular emotional styles are more or less influenced by the environment. Fearful preschoolers tend to be more dishonest depending on disciplines style from parents
stability of temperment of time
Temperment is moderately stable through infancy
It is a predisposition, influenced by experiences and opportunities.
Linked to various developmental outcomes across time: school success, peer interactions, coping, behaviour problems, mental health issues, prosocial behaviour.
the big takehome about temperment
TEMPERMENT IS IMPORTANT BUT NOT NECESSARILY A DETERMINANT
Goodness of fit regarding temperment and environment
Having a goodness of fit bt temperment and child’s env is ideal for development.
quiet/shy babies benefit from active stimulation from parents
babies who are active and outgoing do better when they are given space to explore ton their own
Instinctive emotional bond
aka imprinting. Discovered by Konrad Lorenz who had geese imprint on him.
monkeys bonding to moms
harry ludlow gave monkeys wire mums with milk and soft cloth mums. They chose soft cloth - comfort overnutrients.
monkeys raised by wire moms alone became more fearful, easily startled later.
developmental outcomes of orphanages in WW1
- Physically nourished but didn’t get enough attention/affection. resulted in slow social development, poor mental development.
John Bowlby
Founding father of attachment theory.
Evolutionary perspective - attachment facilitates children’s survival.
attachment
formation of an enduring, social-emotional relationship with a responsive caregiver.
the parent is the SECURE BASE
secure base
child knows that the parent will always be there and respond to their needs
Bowlby’s four phases of attachment development
- Birth - 6-8 wks = pre-attachment
- 6-8 wks - 6-8 months = attachment in the making
- 6-8m - 18m = true attachment
- 18m and on = reciprocal attachment
pre-attachment phase
birth to 6-8w
- infants and parents recognize one another (smell, sound)
- Maternal bonding occurs: development of mother’s emotional attachment to child (facilitated by early contact)
- Infant behaviours: crying, smiling, parent-directed gaze - all facilitate interactions between infant and parent
attachment in the making phase
6-8w t0 6-8m
- Discriminate Social Responsiveness: Social with strangers, but signs of bias towards familiar caregivers (laughing, soothing)
true attachment phase
6-8m to 18m
- attachment figures become ‘special’ relative to others.
Child’s secure, social-emotional base - trustworthy person.
Cognitive development - internal working model
(Mental representation of attachment figure based on expectations of their availability & responsiveness) - Co-occurs with other changes: emotional response to fear strongly emerges (stranger danger & separation protest)
- Physical development -> some physical intdependence
reciprocal relationships attachment phase
18m and on
- children’s cognitive and language development -> partnership (up until now, most interactions initiated by parent)
- child can initiate interactions, negotiate with attachment figure, understand attachment figure’s feelings/goals
Strange-situation procedure: concept
- Patterns of behaviour displayed by infant upon separation and reunion with parent
- separation from parent activates the ATTACHMENT SYSTEM
- separation = emotionally stressful
- reunion = emotionally calming
looks at infant’s proximity seeking, ease with which they are soothed, rapidity of return to play. Gives us information about the child’s mental representation of the parent.
strange situation procedure
- parent and baby playtime
- Stranger, parent and baby
- Stranger and baby / comforts baby if necessary
- Parent returns and stranger leaves
- Baby left alone after they have returned to play
- stranger returns and attempts to calm/play with baby
7/ Parent returns and stranger leaves
secure attachment: key features shown in strange situation procedure
- Explores room, plays with toys
- Misses parent during separations (often cries when left alone)
- Prefers parent over stranger
- Actively greets parent (seeks physical contact)
- Settles and returns to play easily
characterizes ~60-65% NA babies
Insecure-avoidant attachment: key features shown in strange situations procedure
- Not distressed by separation from parent
- Likely avoids/ignores parent on reunion (turns or moves away, leans away if picked up)
- Little to no proximity seeking, distress, anger
- Appears unemotional in response to parent
- Stranger focus on toys/environment than parent
about 20% of NA babies
Insecure-resistant attachment as shown in the strange situation procedure
- Baby may be wary/distressed pre-separation (little play or interaction with env)
- Appears preoccupied with parent throughout (seems angry)
- Not easily consoled upon reunion (may continue to focus on parent and cry, less likely to return to exploration/play)
about 10-15% NA babies
insecure-disorganized attachment: key features as shown in the strange situation procedure
Disorganized or disoriented behaviours in presence of parent
- Freezing with trance-like expression & hands in the air
- Standing when parent returns, then huddling on floor
- Clinging to parent and crying, while leaning away and averting gaze
5-10% of NA babies
source of insecure avoidant
Infants haven’t gotten reinforced. The bond hasn’t formed and they aren’t expecting much from their parent
insecure-resistant source
Child is angry. They are upset around parent and this often comes from inconsistent behaviour from parent
Attachment at its core is based on _________________
parental sensitivity and responsivity to the child’s signals, which allows for collaborative parent-chlid communication.
- Affect-attunement
- Has to be consistent and predictable
- Parent-child synchrony
Affect Attunement
ability to match the child’s affective state. The parent has to understand what the child is feeling.
Parent-child synchrony
harmonious, reciprocal, and mutually responsive itneraction between parent and child.
- initially one-sided
- facilitated by parent’s sensitivity and responsiveness
contingent communication (4)
characterized by a collaborative give-and-take of signals between the members of the pair
- Parent’s ability to (1) accurately interpret shild’s signals (truly understand what the child needs)
- Parent’s ability to respond in a (2) timely and (3) effective manner
functions of attachment (4)
- Maintain infant’s sense of security
- Regulate infant’s affect and arousal
(Arousal = being alert - emotionally & physically stressful / emotion regulation vs. dysregulation) - Communication / Promote expression of feelings
- A base for exploration
Attachment Styles (4)
Secure
Insecure avoidant
Insecure resistant
Insecure DIsorganized
Secure attachment style
parent
child
- Parent demonstrates high contingent communication
- emotionally available and attuned
- Sensitive & attentive
- Responsive
- Child’s internal working model of parent: trustworthy
Insecure avoidant attachment style
parent
child
Parent demonstrates low contingent communication
- Emotionally unavailable
- Not perceptive
- Rejecting
- Unresponsive
Child’s internal working model of parent: Unavailable
’ deactivation of attachment system
Insecure resistant
parent
child
Parent demonstrates inconsistent contingent communication
- sometimes emotionally avail
- sometimes sensitive & attentive
- sometimes responsive
child’s internal working model of parent: Inconsistent
‘overactivation’ of attachment system
Insecure disorganized
parent
child
Parent demonstrates disorganized communication:
- Expresses fear of child
- Elicits fear in child
- Disoriented
- Approach and avoidance
Child’s internal working moel of the parent: disorganized
More than moms! Other attchment figures
Infants form attachment to other caregivers too!
Caregiving differences due to gender:
- Play vs emotional support
- Parental touch
Mothers are more affectionate than fathers, fathers are more stimulating and proprioceptive than mothers
After surgery: mothers touch their children at higher rates and are more likely than fathers to embrace their children
cultural differences in parent-child attachment
cross-culturally caregiver sensitivity is associated with infant security (secure base is universal).
parental models of attachment (as adults)
Secure/Autonomous
- fluid, objective, see impact, realistic view of parents
Dismissing
- dismiss value of attachment relationships; normalize parents; lack detail; distant relationships with parents currently
Preoccupied
- Idealize parents; blame selves; preoccupied with past attachment relationships; exhibit anger/confusion
Unresolved/disorganized
- During discussion of trauma: lose trac of what they are saying; become silent; abruptly switch topics
Adult Attachment Interview and Strange Situation Procedure
A person’s attachment on the AAI is associated with:
- their own attachment style as on infant on the SSP
- Modest relationship with the attachment style of their infant on the SSP
Prior to giving birth, AAI style can predict the infant’s attachment style on SSP.
THEREFORE, THERE IS A GENERAL TRASMISSION OF PARENTAL WORKING MODELS
Self-recognition milestones
15 months - infants begin to show self-recognition in mirror task
18-24mo - children looks more at photos of self than others and refer to self by name or personal pronoun
awareness of self extending over time is called
autobiographical memory
self-concept comes from
self awareness
developmental changes in self-concept
Preschoolers: preferences, possessions, competencies, physical characteristics
School-Age: emotions, social groups, comparisons with peers
Adolescents: Attitudes, personality traits, beliefs vary with setting (shy at school), future oriented
adolescnet search for identity
- use hypothetical reasoning to experiment with different selves and imagine themselves in different roles
Adolescence characterized by: (4)
Egocentrism
Imaginary audience
personal fable
Illusion of invulnerability
Stages of Identity
Diffusion: confused or overwhelmed with the task
Foreclosure: Identity determined largely by adults
Moratorium: examining alternatives
Achievement: chosen a specific identity
Ethnic identity
Individual’s sense of belonging to an ethnic or racial group, including the degree to which they associate their thinking, perceptions, feelings and behaviour with membership in that group
Strong ethnic identity benefits self-esteem and relationships
Bicultural identity
A bicultural identity includes a comfortable identification with both the majority culture and one’s own ethnic culture
- Many are able to maintain strong ties to moth ethnic and mainstream cultures.
- Others find identifying with mainstream culture weakens ethnic ties and may create conflict with parents
Identity and Acculturation
- COmmunities who value cultural and ethnic diversity benefit new immigrants
- The nature of ethnic identity changes over generations of ASSIMILATIONS
Aculturation: the process of integrating into and adopting the customs of a different culture
Some LGBTQ youth face special challenges (2) and may go through 3 stages
- Stigma may bake it hard for them to accept their own sexual preferences.
- It can be extremely difficult to ‘come out’
- Test and exploration
- Identity acceptance
- Identity integration
Developmental changes in Self-Esteem
4 areas of self esteem emerge in elementary school years
- 4-5yrs - children have differentiated view of themselves
- Self-esteem highest in preschoolers
- Elementary areas of self-esteem: scholastic, athletic, social and physical
- Social comparisons lead to drop in self-esteem at beginning of elementary school
- Self-esteem stabilizes and then sometimes drops in transition to middle school
Other domains of self esteem are added in adolescence
Global self-worth in adolescents
Discrepancy between actual and ideal selves, and the perceived relative importance of that discrepancy.
Sources of self-esteem
- Higher when parents are nurturing and involved and establish rules concerning discipline
- Higher when they believe that they can succeed at something that is valued by themselves and others
- Comparisons with others (particularly peers). Higher SE when they think other view them positively.
- Gifted children in gifted classes may have lower SE than those in regular classes
sources of self-esteem: praise
Should focus on effort rather than ability
When faced with setback:
- Children praised for their effort will work harder
- Children praised for their ability will not try as hard
Low self-esteem: a cause or consequence
- More like to have problems with peers, psychological disorders, get involved with bullying, behave aggressively and do poorly in school
- Depression can be a life-long outcome of low SE
- Low SE is a cause of future harmful outcomes and a consequence of past difficulties
High self-esteem/inflated sense of self-worth can contribute to -
bullying and agression
Describing others
- Descriptions become increasingly abstract
- Begin with focus on concrete characteristics but by adolescence, descriptions are more abstract and emphasize psychological traits
- Until about 10, children demonstrate a bias for seeing positive traits in others
Understanding what others think
- Preschoolers are egocentric
- Perspective taking increases with age and depends on cognitive development
Selman’s Stages of Perspective Taking
3-6y - undifferentiated 4-9y - social-informational 7-12y - self-reflective 10-15y - third person 14y-adult - societal
Undifferentiated stage of perspective-taking
3-6y
Children know that self and others can have different thoughts and feelings, but often confuse the two
social-informational stage of perspective-taking
4-9y
Children know tat perspectives differ because people have different access to information
Self-reflective stage of perspective taking
7-12y
Children can step into another’s shoes and view themselves as others do; they know that others can do the same
Third person stage of perspective taking
10-15y
Children and adolescents can step outside the immediate situations to seehow they and another person are viewed by a third person
Societal stage of perspective taking
14y to adults
Adolescents realize that a third person’s perspective is influenced by broader personal, social and cultural contexts
Perspective-taking
Linked to theory of mind
Children with good perspective taking skills usually get along better with their peers (but can also use this awareness to tease and bully)
Prejudice
a negative view of others based on group membership
Development of prejudice
Preschoolers and kindergarteners attribute many positive traits to their own group
- Usually declines during elementary school, but increases during adolescence due to internalization of prejudice in society and increased preference for their own group
We can reduce prejudice through:
- ensuring equality of status for all
- Encouraging friendly, constructive contact between groups that involved working towards a common goal
- Engaging children in role-play activities to help them learn about experiences of individuals from other groups
- Ensuring that adults support the goal of reducing prejudice
What is moral development
- Involves changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviours regarding standards of right and wrong.
How people:
- think and reason about moral decisions
- behave when they must make a moral decision
- feel about moral matters
Self-control and moral development
self-control is one of the first steps toward moral behaviour because children must learn that they cannot constantly do whatever temps them in the moment.
extent to which oen is able to resist violating moral norms, even when detection and punishment is unlikely, is an important index of morality
beginnings of self-control
1 yr - aware that others impose demands
2yr - have itnernalized some controls
3yr - capable of self-regulation
develops gradually during elementary school years.
Self-control is
the ability to control one’s behaviour and to inhibit impulsive responding to temptations
Marshmallow task: important
Early self-control is linked to later outcomes.
Wait time at age four correlated with SAT scores, ability to cope with frustration, planfulness
less wait time correlated with increased risk taking in adolescence
Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study
One of the longest cohort longitudinal studies
Self-control measured from 3-11, controlling for SES and IQ
Adolescents: smoking, dropping-out, pregnancy
Age 32: Health, wealth, crime
Influences on self control: Parenting
- Warm and loving with well-defined limits is best
- Very strict parenting hinders the development of self-control
- Inductive reasoning: explain situation to child and encourage them to think it through on their own
Influences on self-control: temperment
Fearful and anxious = compliance
Tempermentally fearless children comply out of positive feelings for a loved one, NOT distress caused by fear of misdeeds
Influences on self-contro;: Culture
In cultures where cooperation and self-restraint are more highly valued, children may internalize self-control more readily and earlier
How to improve children’s self-control
- Remind children of the need to resist temptation
- Make tempting events less attractive
- Children who have concrete way of handling tempting situations are better at resisting
Reasoning about moral issues: Piaget
0-4yrs - premoral
5-7yrs - moral realism
8yrs - moral relativism
Piaget: premoral stage
No consistent understanding of morality
Piaget: moral realism stage
5-7yrs
- Rules must be followed and cannot be changed
- Heteronomous morality
(absolute rules handed down by another) - Immanent Justice (Belief that breaking a rule always leads to punishment)
Piaget: Moral relativism stage
around 8yrs
- Understanding that rules are created by people to help them get along
- Autonomous morality: many people work together to create rules; based on free will
Piaget’s contribution to moral development
Moral reasoning progresses through stages that are driven by cognitive development and social interaction
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
- uses dilemmas to examine moral reasoning (Heinz Dilemma)
Stages in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
Preconventional: punishment and reward
- Stage 1: Obedience to authority
- Stage 2: Nice behaviour in exchange for future favours
Conventional Level: Social Norms
- Stage 3: Live up to others’ expectations
- Stage 4: Follow rules to maintain order
Postconventional Level: Moral Codes
Stage 5: Adhere to social contract when it is valid
Stage 6: Personal morality based on abstract principles
Criticism of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
Support:
- People progress through stages in sequence
- Moral reasoning is linked to moral behaviour
However:
- Moral reasoning is not as consistent as theory would predict
- Cross-cultural evidence also inconsistent. Different cultures do moral reasoning differently depending on their different values.
Ethic of care
- Beyond Kohlberg’s theory.
- Gillian: Justice applies more to males’ reasoning about morality and females are more concerned with concern for others
- The most advanced level of moral reasoning is based on the understanding that caring is the cornerstone of all human relationships.
Social conventions are
arbitrary standards of behaviour agreed to withing a group to facilitate interactions
Personal domain refers to
choices about one’s own body, friends and activities
Morality represents ONE DOMAIN of social judgements
Also social conventions and personal domain.
- Reasoning about the domains becomes more nuanced as children develop
- The domains of morality, social convention and personal autonomy exist across cultures, but there are cultural differences in how actions are categorized
Moral development theory: cognition
- Much more moral developmental theory emphasizes cognition
- Emotions and cognition interact in the development of moral judgements
Emotional component of moral development
- Moral decision making is often quite emotional
- Repeated exposure to events leads children to form scripts about the emotional consequences of particular actions
- Emotional response is an important step in creating different categories of moral concepts
Role of emotion in moral development
Positive feelings: empathy, sympathy, admiration
- You are more likely to engage in moral behavior when you feel these
Negative feelings: anger, outrage, shame guilt
- Decisions based on these may be more
Promoting moral reasoning
- Reasoning becomes more sophisticated with discussion: explain why a child is being punished
- Discussion about human rights, responsibilities, and respect are valuable components of school curriculum
- Hearing about problems of others can inspire children and adolescents to act for social change
Development of prosocial behaviour
- define
- Altruism
milestones (3)
- Prosocial behaviour: actions that benefit others
- Altruism: prosocial behaviour that helps others with no direct benefit to the individual
- 18mo: simple acts of altruism seen
- Preschool: children gradually understand others’ needs and learn appropriate altruistic behaviour, but altruism is limited
- Both prosocial intentions and strategies for helping increase with age
Skills underlying prosocial behaviour
- Perspective-taking
- Empathy
- Moral reasoning: children are more prosocial when they begin to make moral decisions based on principles rather than on the basis of reward/punishment
Situational influences on prosocial behaviour
Setting helps determine whether children act altruistically or not.
Children help when they:
- feel responsible for the person in needs
- feel competent to help
- Are in a good mood
- The cost of helping is modest
contributions of heredity to prosocial behaviour
- Identical twins more alike than fraternal
- Prosocial behaviours influenced by genes through their influence on temperment
Socializing prosocial behaviour
- model it for children
- PS behav is encouraged by parents who are warm and upportive, set guidelines, and provide feedback that helps children to understand how their actions affect others.
- Children and adolescents need to routinely be given the opportunity to help and cooperate with others, which sensitizes them to needs of others and given them the satisfaction of helping
Instrumental Aggression
used to achieve a specific goal (e.g. steal a toy)
Hostile aggression
unprovoked aggression with the goal of intimidation or harassment
Reactive aggression
One child’s behaviour leads to another’s aggression
Relational aggression
Try to hurt other my undermining social relationships
- way higher proportion of adolescent girls engage in relational aggression because it isn’t socially acceptable for them to be physically aggressive.
Changes and stability in aggression
Instrumental -> hostile -> Reactive -> relational
FOrms of aggression change with age, but individuals’ aggression is moderately stable
Roots of aggressive behaviour: biology
Biological contributions include:
- temperment
- testosterone
- NTs
Can make aggressive behaviours more likely under certain conditions (i.e. in the presence of abuse)
Roots of aggressive behaviour: Family Experiences
Parenting factors:
- Controlling or coercive parents
- Use of harsh physical punishment and threats
- Unresponsive or emotionally uninvested parents
- lack of monitoring
- neglect
- conflict in the home
Aggressive behaviour - aggressive punishment cycle begins. Often escalates in intensity
Roots of aggressive behaviour: media and society
Media contributes, particularly when children identify with aggressive characters
Exposure to a culture of violence contributes to aggressive attitudes and behaviour.
Other contributions to aggressive behaviour
- Aggressive children often have aggressive peers
- They often experience failure in school
- Aggression, antisocial behaviour, and violent crime are more common when there is poverty
- Once a child is labeled as aggressive, they are more likely to be accused of aggression and punished
Social-Information-Processing Theory
A theory for aggression.
Aggressize children systematically mispercieve people’s actions
Hostile attribution bias
- Help them understand when it’s appropriate and when it isn’t
Hostile attribution bias
A social cognitive bias, demonstrated by aggressive children
- In a scenario with a negative outcome and ambiguous intention, aggressive child will assume behaviour is hostile, while nonaggressive child will assume the behaviour was accidental
- it
Cascading risks (aggression)
later risk factors build on prior risks
Prevention is therefore important:
- begin early
- be maintained over childhood
- involve children and their parents
Victims of aggression
Chronic victims of aggression are often lonely, anxious, depressed, dislike school, and how low self-esteem
Youngsters are more likely to be victims when they are aggressive themselves or are withdrawn, submissive, and how low self-esteem
Cyberbullying
reaches beyond the school setting
continued ridicule is overwhelming
how to help victims of aggression
- Be assertive
- Adult support and assistance are important
- The most effective solution to bullying is prevention through the creation of positive school communities
Sex
a person’s biological identity
chromosomes, physical identity and hormones
Gender
Socially and culturally constructed roles, relationships, behavoiurs, relative power and other traits that society ascribes to females, males and people of diverse gender identities
Gender stereotypes (3)
Beliefs about how males and females differ in personality traits, interests and behaviours
most adults associate different traits with men and women
In NA males are seen as instrumental and women as expressive
Learning gender stereotypes (5)
- by age 4, children have extensive knowledge of gender-stereotyped activities
- During elementary-school years, children learn that traits and occupations associated with males have higher status
- Older children see stereotypes as general guidelines that aren’t necessarily binding
- Girls tend to be more flexible about stereotypes
- Adolescents from middle-class homes tend to have more flexible ideas about gender than those from lower-class homes
Gender differences in physical development and behaviour
- Boys tend to be bigger, stronger, faster, more active
- Girls tend to be healthier and better on tasks requiring fine motor coordination
Gender differences in intellectual abilities and achievement
Verbal ability
Spatial ability
Spatial memory
Math
- Verbal ability: girls excel at reading, spelling, and writing, and are less likely to have language-related difficulties
- Left hemisphere may develop more quickly in girls
- Mothers tend to talk more to girls than boys
- Spatial ability: boys tend to surpass girls at mental rotation and determining relations between objects in space
- Spatial memory: females tend to have better memory for spatial locations of objects
- Girls tend to perform better on tests than boys in elementary schools but this reverses in high school and college.
Gender differences in personality and social behaviour
- boys are more likely to be physically aggressive
- Aggressive behaviour has been linked to androgens, hormones secreted by the testes
- Parents tend to be more tolerant of aggressive behaviour in sons than daughters
- Girls tend to use relational aggression rather than physical aggression
- Girls tend to be better than boys at expressing emotions and interpreting others’ emotions
- Adolescent girls more likely than boys to be depressed (more compliant, more social pressure)
Actual differences in gender?
- General differences represent averages of females and males.
- DIstributions of scores have considerable overlap and many abilities and behaviours don’t show any gender differenced
Influence of culture on gender identity
- Expectations have an impact on abilities, as do vocational opportunities
- Self-fulfilling prophecy: parental expectations and scholastic influences
Gender socializing influences of people and the media: parents
- Parents treat sons and daughters alike, except for behaviours related to gender roles
- Parents more positive when children play with toys typical for their sex
- Fathers are more likely to encourage behaviour associated with gender stereotypes
Gender socializing influences of people and the media: at school
- Many teachers make gender salient in the classroom and interact more with boys than girls (negative attention is attention too)
- 2-3yrs: children begin to prefer playing with same-sex peers
- Once children learn rules about gender-typical play they often react harshly to perceived violations
- Early segregation of playmates means that boys learn primarily from boys and girls from girls, reinforcing gender differences in play
Cognitive theories of gender identity (5)
- Gender identity develops gradually
Child develops an understanding of: - gender labeling
- stability (girls become women and boys become men)
- consistency (if you cut your hair you would still be a girl)
- constancy (once you have achieved the first three)
- By 4 yrs, children understand gender constancy and know gender-typical and gender-atypical activities
Gender-schema theory
Once children learn their gender, they pay more attention to objects and activities that are considered gender appropriate
Gender dysphoria
The experience of extreme discomfort with one’s gender assigned at birth
- In many cases, these children who do not continue to have gender dysphoria when they grow older
- For natal males, for whom dysphoria doesn’t persist into adulthood, 63-100% self-identify as gay
- For natal females, for whom dysphoria doesn’t persist into adulthood, 32-50% identify as lesbians
Biological influences on gender
- evolutionary adaptation to male and female roles may influence gender differences
- The amount of testosterone in amniotic fluid predicts a child’s preference for masculine sex-typed activities
Congenital adrenal hyperpasia
Girls affected by CAH are exposed to large amounts of androgen during prenatal development and tend to prefer masculine activities and male playmates
three interactions to form one’s gender identity
Biology
socializing influence of others and media
Child’s own efforts to understand gender
Androgyny
Balance or blending of both masculine and feminine-stereotyped activities
Advantages/ disdvantages of androgyny
- more flexible and adaptable
- higher self esteem
- better adjusted
disadvantages:
- children may be rejected by peers
Moving past gender roles
- children can be taught to have fewer stereotyped views of occupations and household activities in the short-term
- Parents may influence by not being gender-bound themselves
- Parents should base toy/activity/chore decisions on individual child, not on their sex
- Children can’t be sheltered from forces outside the home the shape gender roles, but parents can encourage critical thinking about gender-based choices of others
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model
child
Microsystem (school, family, daycare)
Mesosystem (interactions among microsystems)
Exosystem (things that are around the child but don’t have a direct influence on them - eg parent’s workplace)
Macrosystem (larger env)
Chronosystem (changes with the person and their environment over time)
Two primary dimensions of parenting styles
warmth and responsiveness
control
high levels of warmth and responsiveness and moderate levels of control are the best.
Control involves setting age-appropriate standards, consistent enforcement of rules, and good communication
Different parenting styles
Authoritarian - high control, little warmth
Authoritative - Fair control with warmth and responsiveness
Permissive - warmth and caring but little control
Uninvolved - neglectful
generally, authoritative parenting is associated with best outcomes for children
variations in parenting associated with culture and SES
- views about the proper amount of parental warmth and control vary by culture
- Parenting styles vary across and within cultures depending on SES and parental level of stress
Parental Bheaviour (3)
- Direct Instruction: telling children what to do, why, when
- Observing: Children learn from watching others and from counterimitation (seeing others get in trouble)
- Feedback: reinforcement is useful, but parents often unknowingly reinforce behaviours they want to prevent (negative reinforcement trap)
To be effective, research indicates that punishment needs to be: (3)
- Administered by a person with whom the child has a warm, affectionate relationship
- Accompanied by an explanation and suggestions for future ways of behaving
- Administered promptly and consistently
Disadvantages of punishment
- Behaviours are only stopped temporarily
- Child may be too angry or upset to learn alternative behaviour
- Child may imitation aggressive behaviours of parent with peers and younger siblings, leading to behaviour problems
Influences of the marital system on parenting
- Many parents work together in a coordinated and complementary fashion toward shared goals for child’s development
- Lack of teamwork, competition for child’s attention and gatekeeping (wait until your mother is home) often cause problems
Children’s contributions to the parenting relationship
- Parents’ expression of warmth and control change as children age
- Parents behave differently depending on a child’s specific behaviour and temperment
- Influence between parents and children is preciprocal
The impact of divorce
- Affects conduct, school achievement, adjustment, self-concept, and relationships with parents
- Most children adjust beginning in second year after divorce (easier if parents cooperate with each other)
- Overall risk of emotional and behavioural problems is higher, bu majority of children will not experience LT neg effects
- Negative effects of divorce are related to parental absence, economic hardship, and conflict between parents
Blended families
Most typically: mother, children and step-father
Children benefit from warm/supportive stepfather
Adolescents don’t adjust as well to remarriage
Grandparents
5 styles
Children and adolescents benefit from active involvement of grandparents.
- Influential (some parental roles)
- Supportive (very close and involved)
- Authority-oriented
- Passive (involved)
- Detached
The role of grandparents (immigrants and indigenous populations)
- Especially active in the lives of immigrant and minority children
- often taking parental roles
- First Nations grandmothers often very closely involved in raising grandchildren
Firstborn/laterborn/only children
- Parent more realistic and relaxed in discipline with laterborn children
- Firstborns have higher scores on intelligence tests, more likely to go to uni and more willing to conform to adults’ requets
- Laterborns tend to be more popular and innovative
- Only children more likely to succeed in school, have higher levels of intelligence, leadership, autonomy, maturity
Adopted children
- similar in temperment/attachment/cog dev to children who live with their biological parents
- Tend to have more problems adjusting to school and more likely to experience conduct disorders
- Quality of life before adoption puts some at risk, but most experience positive outcomes
Qualities of sibling relationships
- Distress associated with the birth of a new sibling can be avoided if parents are responsive to older sibling
- Many older siblings assist with caregiving
- Basic pattern of sibling relations tends to be established early and remain consisten
Siblings get along best when:
- they are the same sex
- Neither is tempermentally emotional
- The younger enters adolescence
- Parents don’t show favouritism
- Each has a unique and well-defined relationship with parents
- Parents have a warm relat w each other
Maltreatment and its consequences
- When children are abuse, their social, emotional, and intellectual dev is often affected
- Psychological and emotional abuse have extensive neg effects
- There is variability in how children respond to abuse
- Children who are ego-resilient (adaptable in challenging situations) exhibit fewer negative consequences following abuse
Causes of maltreatment
Cultural and social factors: attitudes, poverty, social isolation, stress in military families during deployment
Parental Factors: abusive parents often were abused, lack adequate parenting skills, experience dysfunc marriages
Child factors: stepchildren, young children, challenging or ill children are more often targets of abuse
Preventing maltreatment
- Change societal attitudes toward acceptable punishment
- Eliminating poverty and other stressors
- Providing parents with better education about child development, parenting, coping skills as well as social support
Stages in play (4)
1) nonsocial - baby plays alone
2) parallel - play lone but around others
3) associative - play alone, but engage with others around them
4) Cooperative play
make believe
in preschool, cooperative play often includes make believe. Themes are influenced by culture.
Children who engage in make-believe play tend to be more advanced in language, memory, reasoning, theory of mind
solitary play: benefits and disadvantages
can be important for cog dev (divergent thinking)
some forms may indicate problems with social interaction
Different roels of parent in preschool play
- playmate
- social director (arranging play dates)
- Coach (how to share)
- Mediator (in arguments)
Secure maternal attachment relationship contributes to
positive peer relationships
elementary aged children become better at (play)
initiating and maintaining peer relationships
Children with good friends tend to
have higher self esteem Less likely to be lonely/depressed Better able to cope with life stresses Less likely to be victimized by peers have greater self-worth as young adults Be more prosocial
clique
4-6 good friends who tend to be similar in age, sex, race and interests
crown
a larger mixed-sex group of older children who have similar values and attitudes and are known by a common label (jocks, nerds)
- HIgher ranking groups tend to have high SE
- Children with authoritative parents tend to end up in groups that appeal better to adult standards
- Children of authoritarian parents may rebel
- Children with permissive parents more likely to get involved with reckless groups
- Most crowds have dominance hierarchy
Peer influence is strongest when (4)
- youth are younger and more socially anxious
- Peers have higher status
- Peers are friends
- Standards for appropriate behaviour are unclear
Classrom-evaluation inventory
found that most children fall into one of five categories:
- Popular
- Rejected
- Controversial
- Average
- Neglected
Rejected chidlren
- Can have LT consequences such as dropping-out, criminal behaviour and psychopathy
- ## Parents influence rejection by modeling neg social skills and providing inconcsistent discipline that contribs to aggressive interpersonal style
Influences of childcare
- few children, warm/responsive/age-appropriate care
- high-quality childcare can have positive effects on cog, social-emotional dev and school-readiness for children of low-income families
children and adolescents who participate in structures after-school activities are often better-adjusted, have higher SE and more more likely to go to uni
