Final Exam Flashcards
Gifted
- Traditionally refers to someone with scores on intelligence tests of at least 130
- Exceptional talent must be nurtured
- GIfted children are often more mature and have fewer emotional problems
- As adults they are more satisfied with careers, relationships, and life in general
Convergent and divergent thinking
Intelligence is associated with CONVERGENT THINKING (arriving at one correct answer)
Creativity is associated with DIVERGENT THINKING (aim is novel and unusual lines of thought)
Encourage creativity by
encouraging children to take risks with ideas and think of alternatives
Intellectual disability DSM-V
- Deficits in intellectual functioning
- Concurrent deficits or impairments in adaptive functioning
- Below-average intellectual and adaptive abilities must be evident prior to age 18
Defining and measuring a child’s intellectual disability
- No linger defined on the basis of IQ
- Level of adaptive functioning important
Adaptive functioning
how effectively individuals cope with ordinary life demands and how capable they are of living independently
Broken up into subcategories: Conceptual, Social, Practical, Occupational Skills
Prevalence of intellectual disabilities
1-3% of population
Twice as many males as females among those with mild cases
- More prevalent in children of lower SES, minority groups (especially for mild cases)
- Severe ID equally prevalent in all groups
Genetic and Constitutional factors for Intellectual disability
Chromosomal abnormalities:
- Fragile-X syndrome is the most common inherited ID
- Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes (both associated with abnormality on chromosome 15)
- Down syndrome
Single-gene conditions: inborn errors of metabolism
Adverse biological conditions
FASD
Teratogens
Down Syndrom
- Usually result of failure of the mother’s 21st pair of chromosomes to separate during meiosis
Single-gene conditions that cause intellectual disability
- Inborn errors of metabolism
- Excesses or shortages of certain chemicals that are necessary during
developmental stages - Cause of 3-7% of severe ID cases
Phenylketouria
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Single-gene condition that results in lack of liver enzymes necessary to metabolize phenylalanine.
Can be treated wit diet successfully and prevent ID.
Specific Learning Disorder (DSM V Criteria)
Difficulties learning and using academic skills…presence of at least 1 of the following for 6+ months (despite provision of targeted intervention)
- Inaccurate or slow and effortful word reading
- Difficulty understanding the meaning of what is read
- Difficulty with spelling
- Difficulty with written expression
- Difficulties mastering number sense, number facts, or calculation
- Difficulties with mathematical reasoning
Affected academic skills:
- Substantially bELOW EXPECTED FOR AGE
- Cause significant interference with performance
- Confirmed by individually administered achievement measures and clinical assessment (or documented history after 17 yrs)
Difficulties began during school-age years
Not better accounted for by ID, uncorrected visual or auditory acuity, other mental/neurological siorders, psychosocial adversity, language issues, poor instruction.
Big difference between old and new SLD criteria
Less based on IQ!
Performance is markedly low in one or more areas but with proper support, thiese kids can achieve at an average level
Mild Specific Learning Disorder
Some difficulties in one or two domains. May be able to compensate well when provided accommodations/support.
Moderate Specific Learning Disability
Marked difficulties in one or more domains. Require intervals of intensive intervention, some accomodations or support required for some of the day
Severe Specific Learning Disability
Severe difficlties in one or more somains. Unlikely to learn skills without intensive individualized on-going support for most of school years. Even with support, they may not be able to complete all activities efficiently
Specific learning Disability Specifiers
Mild- moderate-severe With impairment in: - Reading - Written expression - Mathematics
Trouble with defining learning disabilities
DSM 5 criteria is new and different and doesn’t match the criteria from the Learning Disabilities Association of Canada
Association emphasizes:
- processing deficites underly the difficulties in one or more area
- Could result from home life
- Include children that are performing well but only with exceptionnaly intense effort
-
Assessing a Learning Disability
- Background information
- Developmental history, school evaluation, forms from parent and school
- Copies of all reports
- Interview parents, child, teacher if possible
- Rating scales from parents and schoo. - Psychoeducational Testing
- Cognitive/Intelligence
- Academic Achievement
- Processing Measures (as appropriate) in language, phonology, visuomotor, memory, executive functioning, fluency/automaticity
Specific Learning Disability with Impairment in Reading
- Most common underlying feature is the inability to distinguish or separate sounds in spoken words
- Involves difficulty learning basic sight words, such as: the, who, laugh, said
- Core deficits in reading disorders are in decoding rapidly enough to read the whole word - coupled with problems reading single, small words
Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Written Expression
- Writing disorders are often associated with problems with eye/hand coordination (leads to poor handwriting)
- Children with writing disorders (1) produce shorter, less interesting, and poorly organized essays; (2) are less likely to review spelling, punctuation, and grammar to increase clarity.
Specific Learning Disability with Impairment in Mathematics
- Difficulty in recognizing numbers and symbols, memorizing facts, aligning numbers, and understanding abstract concepts
- May include problems in comprehending abstract concepts or n visual-spatial ability
- Involved core deficits in arithmetic calculation and/or mathematics reasoning abilities
Prevalence and Course of Specific Learning Disorders
- about 2-10% of population
- SLD with reading difficulties 5-17% of kids
- may be part of a spectrum of abilities, rather than a discrete phenomenon
- SLD with math impairment is 20% of children with LDs.
- SLD with impaired written expression is rare on its own, but overlaps more with other disorders (especially math because of difficulty recognizing symbols)
Biological Causes of Learning Disabilities
- Difficulties bringing information from various brain regions together to integrate and understand information
- Recent findings suggest two distinguishable types of reading disorder (children who are persistently-poor and children who can improve with intensive phonics help)
- Heritability accounts for 60% of variance in reading disorders
- Particular problems in the AUDITORY ASSOCIATION AREA
Social and Psychosocial Causes of Learning Disabilities
- Co-occurring emotional disturbances and other signs of poor adaptive ability
- Dyslexia/ADHD overlap 30-70% of the time
- Some children with learning disorders show symptoms of ADHD
Prevention and treatment of learning disorders
- Interventions rely primarily on educational and psychosocial methods
- No biological treatments exist
- Issues of identification exist because there is a brief window of opportunity for successful treatment
- Prevention involves training children in phonological awareness activities at an early age
Instructional methods for learning disabilities
- Direct instruction is best for children with LDs
- Early interventions must address phonological and verbal abilities
- Effective reading instruction focuses on: phonemic awareness, decoding, word recognition fluency, constructing meaning, vocab, spelling, writing
Adaptations for children with LDs
Use of calculator Speech to text software software to read to student out loud extra time note taker
Language - definition
A system that relates sounds (or gestures) to meaning
5 elements of spoken languages
1) Phonology
2. Morphology
3. Semantics
4. Syntax
5. Pragmatics
Phonology / phoneme
sounds of a language
sounds that are the building blocks of language
Morphology
morpheme
rules of meaning within language
smallest unit of meaning in a language
semantics
study of words and their meanings
syntax
rules that specify how words are combines in sentences
pragmatics
how people use language to communicate effectively
baby perception of speech
- phonemes
they can hear phonemes that are not in their language. THis ability disappears by about 12 months of age.
baby perception of speech
- words
Infants can identify individual words and distinguish them. They pay more attention to stressed syllables
Infant directed speech may help children learn language
Infant directed speech
This is like baby talk.
Exaggerated changes in how loud you are and pitch playing on how babies pay more attention to stressed sounds.
First steps to speech
2 months -
6 months -
8-11 months -
Around first birthday -
2 months - cooing
6 months - babbling
8-11 months - babbling that includes intonation
Around first birthday - first words
cooing (what, when)
vowel-like sounds; 2 months
babbling (what, when)
speech-like sound that has no meaning; 6 months
intonation (what, when)
rising or falling pitch
babbling includes intonation around 8-11 months. It is influenced by the speech they hear
Understanding that words are symbols
- infants understand that words are symbols (something that stands for something else)
- children start to use gestures around the same time they start to talk (sometimes before they know words)
Naming explosion (3)
Learn new words much more rapidly than before
children learn new words too rapidly to be starting form scratch on each one
they are fast mapping
fast mapping
learning word meanings so rapidly that the child can’t be considering all possible meaninings
How does rapid word learning happen (4)
- joint attention
- constraints on word names
- sentence cues
- cognitive growth
joint attention
when toddlers touch or look at an object and adult names it for them. They both pay attention to the same object at the same time.
parents simplify by using one words to classify a number of objects
constraints on word names (3)
1) different rules for learning new words. If unfamiliar word is used in context of objects where some have names and some don’t, the child will attribute the new word tot he object that doesn’t have a name yet
2) name refers to whole objects and to all objects of the same type.
3) If an object that already has a name and is presented with a new name, this new word represents a subcategory
sentence cues
more knowledge that children get, the more they can figure out
cognitive growth (word learning)
thinking becomes more sophisticated, new rules, find errors.
underextension
naming error
defining a word too narrowly
overextension
naming error
defining a word too broadly
individual differences in word learning
- wide range in vocabulary development largely accounted for by (1) the child’s environment and (2) the child’s phonological memory
phonological memory
the ability to remember speech sounds briefly
word learning styles
referential
expressive
referential style of word learning
vocabularies consist mainly of words that name objects, persons, or actions
children use language primarily as an intellectual tool
expressive style of word learning
vocabularies include many social phrases that are used as a single word
eg. Go away / I want it
children use language primarily as a social tool
encouraging word learning (3)
- speak WITH children (not at them)
- Name objects that are the focus of child’s attention, use speech that uses different words, and respond promptly to child.
- Read books and as children open-ended questions
does watching TV benefit word learning
No evidence
Sesame street helps children learn words because it’s interactive
Benefits of educational TV are greatest when children watch with adults
Impact of bilingual education on language development (2)
- Bilingual children learn as rapidly as monolinguals
- Bilingual children are often more skilled at switching back and forth between tasks and inhibit inappropriate responses
The best method of teaching immigrant children
is a combination of the child’s native language and the local language
Learning other symbolds (beyond words and gestures)
Trend
8 months
3 yrs
Other symbolic forms
- children learn other symbol systems as they grow, such as pictures and scale models
18 months - understand that photos are REPRESENTATIONS of objects
3 yrs - understand relationship between scale models and objects that represent
other symbolic forms learned later (include maps, graphs, musical notation)
telegraphic speech
telegraphic speech: in 2-year-olds
“want milk, “play blocks”
development of complex sentences
gradaually add grammatical morphemes (words of endings of words that make a sentence grammatical);
Mastery of grammar by rule-based learning, so errors of over-regularization occur (“two mans)
For approaches to how children acquire grammar
1) behaviourist
2) linguistic
3) cognitive
4) social interaction
Linguistic approach to mastering grammar
- how do we know (what children do and brain) (2)
- the approach (3)
- Language input is important but learning is more than just imitation - children produce novel sentences and children’s speech has its own grammar
- there are specific regions in the brain for different language functions. Broca’s area (left-frontaL) active for combining words into meaningful sentences
- Language and grammar are mastered in the context of social interactions, even with little or no language input
- Critical period: up to 12 years of age
- Development of vocabulary and grammar are closely related, suggesting both are part of a common system
Language: Taking turns
- Even before children speak, parents model turn-taking (not in some non-Western cultures)
- By 3 yrs - spontaneous turn-taking occurs (conversational babbling)
- By 3 yrs - children will try to elicit a response if listener fails to respond.
Speaking effectively
- Toddlers (1)
- Preschoolers (2)
- School-age (1)
- Toddlers’ first conversations are about themselves
- Preschoolers adjust their speech based on the age of needs of the listener and context
- Preschoolers understand that when listeners misunderstand, the speaker needs to do something
Listening well / believing speaker / understanding ambiguities
Preschoolers often don’t detect ambiguities in messages or they assume they understood the speaker’s intent.
They are more likely to believe confusing statements, or those that contradict their beliefs when told by a parent instead of a classmate.
Understanding non-literal meaning (sarcasm and metaphor) develops slowly
Using gestures to communicate
Gesture use varies between cultures. (shaking hands, bowing)
We can use gestures to communicate emotions. Gestures communicate the ‘right now’, present tense.
signed languages (4)
- Arbitrary units - signs do not have to be iconic.
- Structured and meaningful. Grammatical rules must be followed
- Displacement - Can be used to discuss events displaces in time/place
- Generativity - Can be used to create an infinite number of new utternaces
Evidence for signed language development
- they develop the same way spoken languages do (babbling, naming explosion, telegraphic speech)
- There is a critical period for acquiring signed languages
- They seem to be acquired earlier than spoken languages
Early signs of language issues and phonological awareness
Early language problems are highly predictive of subsequent communication and learning disorders and should not be ignored.
deficits in phonology are a chief reason that children develop communication and learning (80% children use phonemes properly by 7yrs)
Warning signs of communication disorders
- use gestures rather than speech
- difficulty with verbal expression
- Problems segmenting words into phonemes
- Difficulty naming
- Difficulty producing speech sounds
- Late or slow speech development
- Limited vocab, short sentences, simple grammar
- Difficulty articulating words (wabbit)
- Fluency/timing of speech is irregular
- Repetition of sounds or prolonging speech sounds
- Difficulty understanding
Communication Disorders
- Speech sound disorder (producing speech sounds)
- Stuttering/Child-onset fluency disorder
- Language disorder - using language to communicate
- Social (pragmatic) Communication Disorder - using communication socially
communication disorders are developmentally connected to later onset of
learning disorders
Language Disorder
- Characterized by deficits in expression despite normal comprehension of speech.
- Occurs when language matures at least 12 months behind child’s chronological age
- Children with LD often have delayed speech development; limited vocab; speech marked by short sentences and simple grammatical structure
- Linguistic abilities will vary by area.
- Speech sound disorder - difficulty articulating or sond prod
Diagnostic criteria for language disorder (DSM V)
Persistent difficulties in acquisition and use of language across modalities (spoken, written, sign, other) due to deficits in comprehension or production
- Reduced vocab
- limited sentence structure
- Impairments in discourse
substantially below expected for age, resulting in functional limitations and effective:
- communication
- social participation
- academic achievement
- occupational performance
Onset in early developmental period and not due to another impairment
Prevalence and course of language disorder
- affects 7% of younger school-aged children
- Communication disorders identified twice as often in boys than girls
- Most children acquire normal language by adolescence (50% totally outgrow problems)
- Associated with higher than normal rates of negative behaviours
Causes of language disorder (4)
- Genetic: heritable to a significant degree
- Brain: problems in connections between brain areas and less brain activity in left temporal region (language)
- Recurrent middle ear infections in first year of life may lead to speech and language delays
- Home env - unlikely caused by parents except in cases of extreme neglect
Treatment of language disorders
- LD and similar disorders usually self-correct by age 6 and may not require special intervention
- Strategies for parents to stimulate language dev: enroll in specialized preschool with computer/teacher-assisted instruction to teach early academic skills
- build on child’s existing strengths
Childhood onset fluency disorder
Repeated and prolonged pronunciation of certain syllables that interferes with communication
Childhood onset fluency disorder: prevalence and course
- gradual onset bt ages 2 and 7; peaks at age 5
- about 3% of children affected
- Affects males about three times more often
- 80% of those who stutter before age 5 stop after a year in school
Childhood onset fluency disorder: causes
- Genetic factors account for 70% of variance in causes
- Environmental factors account for remaing influences
Childhood onset fluency disorder: possible treatments
- Parental changes - speak to child slowly in short sentences
- contingency management procedure (rewards for completing sentence/story without stutter)
- Habit reversal procedures (when they get a sense that it about to happen they should engage in an incompatible behaviour)
social (pragmatic) communication disorder
- new addition to DSM-5
- persistent difficulties in pragmatics (social use of language and communication)
Functions of emotions (4)
- Help people adapt to their environment
- Perform regulatory functions
- Link various brain systems to form state of mind
- Connects ones mint to another in interpersonal relationships
3 elements of emotions
- A subjective feeling - involves cognitive processes such as appraisal of evaluation of meaning
- A physiological change - endocrine, autonomic, and cardiovascular changes
- An overt behaviour
Basic emotions
happiness anger surprise interest disgust sadness fear
Process of experiencing emotions (4)
- Pay attention
- Appraise (what you should do)/ Arousal (physiological feelings that drive your behaviour) - experience of primary emotion
- Differentiation and categorical emotions
- Affect and mood
affect
whatever you are feeling in the moment. Physiological manifestations of emotions
mood
how you feel over time
generally constant in people due to temperment and reinforcement over time
expression of emotions
non verbal behaviour is the primary mode in which emotion is communicated.
- facial expression
- Eye gaze
- Tone of voice
- Bodily motion
- Timing and intensity of the response
expression of emotions and modern technology
we lose a lot of the non verbal communications tof emotions and this can lead to confusion when we talk through text
Newborns only experience ______ basic emotions:
2: pleasure and disgust/distress
milestones for experiencing and expressing emotions
2-3 months: happiness 4-6 months: anger 6 months: fear 8-9 months: all basic emotions 18-24 months: complex emotions (pride, shame, guilt, embarrassment) 7 years: regret
cultural differences in emotional expression
cultures differ in terms of:
- display rules
- Events that trigger emotions
though we can accurately categorize emotions across cultures and individuals, it doesn’t mean that one person’s categorical emotion is the same as another;s
recognizing others’ emotions
Infants begin to distinguish facial expressions associated with different emotions by 4-6 months of age.
Shown by the fact that they often match their emotions to others
Like adults, infants are biased to negative emotions and pay attention to them longer
social referencing
process by which a child looks to the facial expressions and other nonverbal aspects of a parent’s signals to determine how to feel and respond in an ambiguous situation
social referencing milestones
12 months - children use this process to help direct their behaviour (visual cliff - mom makes fear face or smile)
18 months - children demonstrate preferences for certain kind of emotional information
Understanding emotions (milestones)
By kindergarten, children understand that undesirable events often make a person feel angry or sad
By elementary school, children understand that people can have mixed feelings
learning display rules
children also learn these through (1) social learning and (2) through positive rewarding familial relationships
positive familial relationships include making it okay for child to show all emotions and so they are able to learn to regulate them better
regulation of emotions
Begins in infancy.
By 24 mo, toddlers have learned how to direct emotions to meet some needs, but still rely on help from adults.
As children age, they rely less on adults for support in regulating emotions. They use mental strategies more to match particular setting (public, vs private emotional regulation)
emotions needs for fear, sadness and anger
label - need - action tendency
fear - safety&protectoin - run/hide
sadness - comfort - hug
anger - a boundary - defend the boundary
what is temperment?
pattern of emotion and behavioural styles that is evident in the first few weeks after life and is fairly stable across situations, and is biologically based.
different dimensions of temperment
activity level biological rhythm approach/withdrawal adaptability intensity of reaction quality of mood persistent/attention span distractibility theshold of responsiveness
thomas and Chess: patterns of temperment
they proposed that temperment has different dimensions and patterns.
Children were either:
easy, difficult, or slow-to-warm up
now these three classifications are mapped onto different dimensions
easy temperment
calm, relaxed, happy, and cheerful, predictable routines, and flexible
difficult temperment
Irritable, fussy, upset easily, unpredictable/irregular schedules, intense responses to new situations
slow-to-warm up temperment
Often unhappy, cautious and sometimes fussy, do not like new situations, but warm up to new stimuli with repeated exposure.
rothbart: three dimensions of temperment
Surgency/extraversion - extent to which a child is generally happy, active, vocal, and regularly seeks interesting stimulation
negative affect - the extent to which a child is angry, fearful, frustrated, shy, and not easily soothed
effortful control 0 the extent to which a child can focus attention, is not easily distracted, and can inhibit responses
