Final Exam Flashcards
What is a goal?
A future state of affair that we want to attain or maintain
Primary goal
Defines what a communicator is doing
Secondary goal
Shapes how primary goals are pursued
3 Types of Goals
Identity / Relational / Instrumental
Identity Goals
: self - presentation goals
: presenting an image
: preserving the other person’s image
Relational Goals
developing and / or maintaining relationships
Instrumental Goals
: completing tasks, getting things done
: aka to - do lists
Cognitive Complexity
when we have multiple competing goals to manage
Greater Cognitive Complexity
: higher level of interpersonal construct differentiation
: greater awareness of multiple goals
: leads to production of more sophisticated messages
Complex Situations
“Difficult Conversations”
ex: talking friend into getting HIV test
ex: telling someone to improve their behavior
ex: telling your brother to rethink dating his girlfriend
Potential Strategies for Managing Goals
Selection (least sophisticated)
Separation (mid-sophistication)
Integration (most sophisticated)
Selection
picking one goal and going with it
ex: “Hey, next week, could you please not tell that story about when you hitchhiked to Waco?”
Separation
addressing each goal in separate parts of the message
ex: “You know I think your stories are hysterical. My parents have a different sense of humor, though. I wouldn’t bring up anything that could remotely be constructed as raunchy or embarrassing, if I were you”
Integration
addressing multiple goals simultaneously
ex: “I think my family is going to have a great time with you next week, because you are a ton of fun. You should remember to tell them about your internship because they love hearing about the positive things you’ve been doing with your time lately.”
Plans
Presenting actions necessary for accomplishing goals
Planning
Psychological and communicative processes involved in carrying out plans (implementing, modifying & negotiating plans)
Types of Knowledge for pre-conversational plans
Specific Episodes, Hypothetical Episodes, Ensembles of Episodes, Role Models, Instruction & Previous Plan
Specific Episodes
Drawing from actual conversations you have had before
Hypothetical Episodes
Imagining you had this conversation before (practicing it)
Ensembles of Episodes
Take bits and pieces of specific / hypothetical episodes and patch them together for a new plan
Role Models
Think of people you admire (they are good communicators)
Instruction
Formal, educational instruction on persuasion
Previous Plan
Script that you follow (girl scouts cookies selling)
Elements of Pre-Negotiation Plans
Logrolling (quid pro quo), Impression Management, Argumentation, Distributive Bargaining, Setting Limits, & Reactivity
Logrolling
“This or That”
ask for something / offer something else in return
Impression Management
How you want to be seen during your communication
using identity, relational, structural goals
Argumentation
Developing high quality arguments and reasoning
Distributive Bargaining
Unequal exchange
“Ask for this much but negotiate to get that much”
Setting Limits
What am I really willing to throw out?
Reactivity
Not reactance
Monitoring someone else’s reaction and varying strategy depending on how receptive they are
Message Design Logics (MDL)
A theory of individual differences in message production
3 types of Design Logics
Expressive, Conventional & Rhetorical
Expressive Design Logic
(least sophisticated)
“Communication is a medium for expressing feelings
values = clarity, openness, honesty, unimpeded expression
goal = self expression
Conventional Design Logic
(mid-sophistication)
“Communication is a game played cooperatively by social rules”
values = appropriateness, control of resources, cooperativeness
goal = secure desired response
Rhetorical Design Logic
(most sophisticated)
“Communication is the creation and negotiation of social selves and situations”
values = flexibility, symbolic sophistication, depth of interpretation
goal = negotiate social consensus
What MDL works the best?
Rhetorical are the most effective (most personal / person-centered)
Expressives can find _____ messages really frustrating, confusing and ambiguous.
Rhetorical
Dilemmas of Advice
1) Advice Giving
- Being Helpful and Caring vs. Butting In
2) Advice Giving
- Being Supportive vs. Being Honest
3) Advice Receiving
- Showing Gratitude and Respect vs. Making Own Decisions
Dilemma #1 : Being Helpful and Caring vs. Butting In
On the one hand … Showing concern
On the other hand … Being nosy / implying incompetence
Dilemma #2 : Being Supportive vs. Being Honest
On the one hand … People say that they want honest advice
On the other hand … Sometimes people really want validation
Dilemma #3 : Showing Gratitude and Respect vs. Making Own Decision
On the one hand … giving up autonomy
On the other hand … Seeming disrespectful and ungrateful
Face
“The positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular contact. Face is an image of self delineated in terms of approved social attributes.”
Negative Face
the want to be unimpeded (autonomy)
Positive Face
the want to be approved of (liking)
Face - Threatening Acts (FTA)
anything from falling in front of people to asking people to change something about their attitude
Politeness Theory
Verbal & Nonverbal resources for making FTA less FT
Five options for Advice Giving
Bald on Record, Positive Redress, Negative Redress, Off Record & Don’t Do the FTA
Bald on Record
“You need to do something about your breath.”
Positive Redress
“[friendly expletive] man, you know that you’re one of my best friends. I can tell you this because we are close : I’ll hang out with you regardless, but you might be happier if you did something to your breath.”
Negative Redress
“I hate to say anything because it’s up to you, but have you ever thought about trying one of those powerful breath fresheners?”
Off Record
“Is it just me of is there a funny smell in here?”
Don’t Do the FTA
Saying nothing, let your friend go on breathing toxic fumes
Power Assertion
Coercing into changing behavior without providing rationale
“because I said so”
Induction
Providing explanations or reasons for behavior change
Mere Exposure Thesis
Exposing people to a message over and over increases favorable ratings of the message
The principle of Association
When a product becomes connected to an image or a value that is perceived positively by the audience
Wear - out
After a certain point, repetition leads to boredom, tedium, irritation
Colors and their association
Red - Passion Purple - Royalty White - Innocence Soft / Light Blue - Tranquility Green - Freshness
Classical Conditioning
Training people to have automatic responses to a stimulus
Positive attitudes can be created by linking products to pleasant images
Semiotics
The study of symbols
Examples of Semiotics
Religious Symbols - cross / star of david
Golden Arches - McDonald’s
A&M - the ugly aggies
Horns - Longhorns & Happiness
Accessibility
Making (positive) attitudes retrievable from one’s memory
Advertisers want you to automatically think of certain images when their product comes to mind
Gatekeeping
The process through which stakeholders approve of and release information
How do media reports affect public opinion?
Agenda - setting, Priming, & Framing
Agenda - Setting
Media doesn’t tell us what to think, but there is evidence that it tells us what to think ABOUT
Priming
Influencing the weight that people place on various issues
These effects fade over time
Framing
Variations in how matters of policy are phrased, construed, discussed
4 Types of Framing
Equivalency, Emphasis, Episodic, Thematic
Equivalency Framing
use of different words / phrases
“pro-choice” rather than “pro-abortion”
Emphasis Framing
Focusing on different aspects of the issues
risks vs. benefits of withdrawal
Episodic Framing
IDK - LOOK IT UP
Thematic Framing
WHY ARE YOU ASKING ME, I’M NOT AN EXPERT AT PERSUASION!!!
Communication Campaigns
Intentional attempts to inform, persuade, or motivate behavior change
Relatively well - defined and large audiences
Generally for noncommercial benefits
By means of organized communication activities involving mass media
What makes a successful campaign?
- Use gain frame vs. loss frame
- Know your audience
- Use a systems approach
Gain Frame
emphasizing what you would gain from something
Loss Frame
emphasizing what you would lose from something
Are campaigns more effective if they stress positive behavior change or negative consequences?
STRESS POSITIVE BEHAVIOR CHANGE
How can campaigns know their audience?
tailor messages to build on audience’s needs, motives, and values
How can campaigns use a systems approach?
Combine mass media with communication from community groups, local businesses, etc.
Different models of behavior change
Individual effects, Social Diffusion, Institutional Diffusion
Individual Effects (Behavior Change)
Campaigns cause individuals to improve knowledge, change attitudes & enact behaviors
Social Diffusion (Behavior Change)
Campaigns result in changes in public norms & changes in group behavior
Institutional Diffusion (Behavior Change)
Efforts focus on changing opinions of the elite, who enact policy changes, which can trickle down to individuals and groups
Two Types of Public Service Announcements
Radio and Video (TV, viral)
What makes a successful PSA?
Clear / Focused on one specific goal / Grabs audience’s attention right away / Uses everyday language
Diffusion Theory
A theory related to how communication influences our adoption of innovations
Innovations are more likely to be adopted if _____ & _____.
they are more compatible with the values and cultural norms
their rewards are clear & immediate
Stages of Diffusion Theory (Adoption)
Innovators, Early Adopters, Early Majority, Late Majority, Laggards
Innovators
2.5%
Risk takers who have the resources and desire to try new things, even if they fail
Early Adopters
13.5%
“The one to check in with” for new information and reduce others’ uncertainty about a new technology by adopting it
Early Majority
34%
Take their time before adopting a new idea … they are willing to embrace new technology as long as they understand how it will fit with their lives
Late Majority
34%
Adopt in reaction to peer pressure, emerging norms, or economic necessity
Laggards
16%
VERRYYY late to adoption - sometimes don’t even adopt
Stages of Change
A model of intentional behavior change
THE STAGES of change
Pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance, relapse, transcendence
Pre-contemplation
The stage where you haven’t been informed, you don’t know much information about the change
Ignorance is bliss
Contemplation
You are thinking about change within the next 6 months of your life
Preparation
Within the next month something is going to change
you are starting to get the ball rolling
Action
To be here, you have to meet the criteria that the professionals have set for that specific change
Maintenance
…uhm idk … go ask Siri …
Relapse
Resume old behaviors
Transcendence
Not even a thought anymore
Change is a PROCESS not an EVENT (T/F?)
True
Creating attitude & behavior change is EASY (T/F?)
False - creating attitude & behavior change is HARD
Why can persuasion seem unethical?
- Connotes control & dominance
- Suggests a lack of acceptance
- Sometimes employs deception
What does Wilson argue for why persuasion is NOT inherently unethical?
- Persuasion & compliance - gaining are fundamental to relationship development
- Some cultures would disagree that seeking a person’s compliance devalues that person
Motive Matters in Persuasion (T/F?)
True
Persuasion is not a tool (T/F?)
False - Persuasion IS a tool.
