Final Exam Flashcards
Nature-Nurture Issue
The debate over the relative importance of biological predispositions (nature) and environmental influences (nurture) as determinants of human development.
Activity-Passivity Issue
The issue in develop- mental theory centering on whether humans are active contributors to their own development or are passively shaped by forces beyond their control.
Continuity-Discontinuty Issue
The debate among theorists about whether human development is best characterized as gradual and continuous or abrupt and stagelike.
Universality-Context-Speficity Issue
The de-bate over the extent to which developmental changes are common to everyone (universal, as in most stage theories) or different from person to person (particularistic).
Assumptions on the Lifespan Perspective
- lifelong
- multidirectional
- highly plastic (flexible in response to outside influence)
- involves gains and losses
- influenced by biological, historical, and cultural forces
Correlational Method
A research technique that involves determining whether two or more variables are related. It cannot indicate that one thing caused another, but it can suggest that a causal relationship exists or allow us to predict one characteristic from our knowledge of another.
Experimental Design
The holding of all other factors besides the independent variable in an experiment constant so that any changes in the dependent variable can be said to be caused by the manipulation of the independent variable
Cross-Sectional Design
A developmental research design in which different age groups are studied at the same point and compared.
Sequential Design
A developmental research design that combines the cross-sectional approach and the longitudinal approach in a single study to compensate for the weaknesses of each.
Longitudinal Design
A developmental research design in which one group of subjects is studied repeatedly over months or years.
Id
A psychoanalytic term for the inborn component of the personality that is driven by the instincts or selfish urges.
Ego
Psychoanalytic term for the rational component of the personality.
Superego
The psychoanalytic term for the component of the personality that consists of the individual’s internalized moral standards.
Neutral Stimulus
A stimulus that does not naturally elicit response of interest before conditioning.
Unconditioned Stimulus
A stimulus that elicits a particular response without prior learning.
Unconditioned Response
The unlearned response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus
An initially neutral stimulus that elicits a particular response after it is paired with an unconditioned stimulus that always elicits the response.
Conditioned Response
A learned response to a stimulus that was not originally capable of producing the response.
Reinforcement
Pleasant consequence that decreases the probability of a behavior.
Operant Conditioning
Also called instrumental
conditioning, a form of learning in which freely
emitted acts (or operants) become more or less
probable depending on the consequences they
produce.
Positive Reinforcement
The process in operant
conditioning whereby a response is strengthened
when its consequence is a pleasant event.
Negative Reinforcement
The process in operant
conditioning in which a response is strengthened
or made more probable when its consequence
is the removal of an un pleasant stimulus
from the situation.
Punishment
Unpleasant consequence that decreases the probability of a behavior
Positive Punishment
The process in operant
conditioning whereby a response is weakened
when its consequence is an unpleasant event.
Negative Punishment
The process in operant
conditioning in which a response is weakened
or made less probable when its consequence is
the removal of a pleasant stimulus from the
situation.
Constructivism
The position taken by Piaget and others that humans actively create their own understandings of the world from their experiences, as opposed to being born with innate ideas or being programmed by the environment.
Epigenetic Psychbiological Systems Perspective
Gilbert Gottlieb’s view that development is the product of interacting biological and environmental forces that form a larger, dynamic system, both over the course of evolution and during the individual’s life.
Psychoanalytic Theory
The theoretical perspective associated with Freud and his followers that emphasizes unconscious motivations for behavior, conflicts within the personality, and stages of psychosexual development.
Genes
A functional unit of heredity made up of DNA and transmitted from generation to generation.
How do genes affect physical and psychological development?
Contribute directly to physical traits, but only indirectly to psychological traits.
Dominant Genes
A relatively powerful gene that is expressed phenotypically and masks the effect of a less powerful recessive gene.
Recessive Genes
A less powerful gene that is not expressed phenotypically when paired with a dominant gene.
How do you do a Punnett Square?
A a
--------------------
A | AA | Aa |
|---------------|
a | Aa | aa |
---------------------Heritability
The amount of variability in a population on some trait dimension that is attributable to genetic differences among those individuals.
Effects of shared and non-shared environment on trait expression:
Shared: common experiences = increased similarity
Non-Shared: unique experiences = increased differences
Passive Gene-Environment Correlation
Type of environment provided by parents.
Evocative Gene-Environment Correlation
Types of reactions a person’s behavior triggers in others.
Active Gene-Environment Correlation
Types of environments we actively seek out.
Germinal Period
First phase of prenatal development, lasting about 2 weeks from conception
until the developing organism becomes
attached to the wall of the uterus.
Embryonic Period
Second phase of prenatal
development, lasting from the third through the
eighth prenatal week, during which the major
organs and anatomical structures begin to
develop.
Fetal Period
The third phase of prenatal development, lasting from the ninth prenatal week
until birth; during this period, the major organ
systems begin to function effectively and the fetus grows rapidly.
1st Trimester
External genitals form. Reflexive breathing.
2nd Trimester
Myelin production, refined movements, sensory organs.
3rd Trimester
Rapid weight gain, distinguishes tone and rhythm.
Teratogens
Any disease, drug, or other environmental agent that can harm a developing fetus.
What factors influence the severity of teratogen effects?
- Critical Period: most harm during rapid organ development
- Dosage/Duration: larger doses = longer exposure = more harmful
- Heredity: some are better able to withstand harmful environments
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
A group of
symptoms commonly observed in the offspring
of mothers who use alcohol heavily during pregnancy,
including a small head, widely spaced
eyes, and mental retardation.
Consequences of illegal drugs during pregnancy:
prematurity, low birth weight, physical defects, drug addiction, neonatal death, decreased availability of oxygen to fetus
Secular Trends
A trend in industrialized society toward earlier maturation and greater body size.
Brain Laterality
The specialization of the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex of the brain.
Cephalocaudal Development
The principle that growth proceeds from the head (cephalic region) to the tail (caudal region).
Osteoarthritis
A joint problem among older adults resulting from a gradual deterioration of the cartilage that cushions the bones and keeps them from rubbing together.
Reserve Capacity
The ability of many organ systems to respond to demands for extraordinary output, such as when the heart and lungs work at maximal capacity.
Physical Fitness in childhood:
- 60 minutes moderate activity
- promotes physical, cognitive, social well-being
Physical Fitness in adolescence:
approaching peak of fitness and health
Physical Fitness in old age:
- activity throughout lifespan = lifelong benefits
- improved cardio
- slows bone loss
- strengthens muscles
- less depression
- delays disability
Sensation
The process by which information is detected by the sensory receptors and transmit- ted to the brain; the starting point in perception.
Perception
The interpretation of sensory input. Influenced by past experiences.
Nativism
Perception is a product of innate capabilities (nature).
Constructivism
Perception is the result of interpretation & learning (nurture).
Depth Perception
Ability to judge the distance of objects from one another and ourselves. Important for guiding motor activity.
Visual Cliff Research
An elevated glass platform that creates an illusion of depth and is used to test the depth perception of infants.
Depth is perceived ~2 months of age, but not feared. Feared crawlers will not cross. Increased heart rate.
- Most babies cross shallow side (but not deep) to get to mom.
- Fear of drop-off related to crawling
Phonemes
Basic speech sounds
Speech Perception in 1st week of life:
Can distinguish vowel sounds and common vs. uncommon sounds.
Speech Perception 2-3 months old:
Can distinguish similar consonant sounds.
Speech Perception in 1 year olds:
Largely insensitive to sounds not part of their native language.
Changes in smell across lifespan:
- well developed at birth
- increased thresholds over age 70
Changes in touch across lifespan:
- present before birth
- decreased sensitivity in old age
Changes in taste across lifespan:
- new acquired tastes in adolescence
- increased thresholds over age 70
Changes in vision across lifespan:
- 90% of adults wear corrective lenses by age 70
Changes in hearing across lifespan:
-90% have hearing loss over age 65
Accomodation
The process of modifying existing schemes to incorporate or adapt to new experiences.
Contrast with assimilation.
Assimilation
The process by which children interpret new experiences in terms of their existing schemata.
Contrast with accommodation.
Primary Reactions
Repeating actions related to their own bodies originally engaged in by chance.
Secondary Reactions
Repeating actions involving objects in the external environment for the sake of amusement.
Tertiary Reactions
Repeating an action with variation, to observe the outcome. Beginning of intentional, goal-directed behavior.
Conservation
The recognition that certain properties of an object or substance do not change when its appearance is altered in some superficial way.
Centration
The tendency to focus on only one aspect of a problem when two or more aspects are relevant.
Seriation
A logical operation that allows a per- son to mentally order a set of stimuli along a quantifiable dimension such as height or weight.
Relativistic Thinking
A form of postformal-operational thought in which it is understood that there are multiple ways of viewing a problem and that the solutions people arrive at will depend on their starting assumptions and perspective.
Hypothetical Deductive Reasoning
A form of problem solving in which a person starts with general or abstract ideas and deduces or traces their specific implications; “if–then” thinking.
Postformal Thought
Proposed stages of cognitive development that lie beyond formal operations.
Vygotsky’s Theory
Cultures affect how and what we think. Knowledge depends on social competencies.
Zone of Proximal Development
Vygotsky’s term for the difference between what a learner can accomplish independently and what a learner can accomplish with the guidance and encouragement of a more skilled partner.
Recognition Memory
Identifying an object or event as one that has been experienced before, such as when a person must select the correct answer from several options.
Recall Memory
Recollecting or actively retrieving objects, events, and experiences when examples or cues are not provided.
Cued Recall Memory
Recollecting objects, events, or experiences in response to a hint or cue.
Encoding
The first step in learning and remembering something, it is the process of getting information into the information- processing system, or learning it, and organizing it in a form suitable for storing.
Rehearsal
A strategy for remembering that involves repeating the items the person is trying to retain.
Retrieval
The process of retrieving information from long-term memory when it is needed.
Implicit Memory
Memory that occurs unintentionally and without consciousness or awareness.
DOES NOT CHANGE OVER LIFESPAN
Explicit Memory
Memory that involves consciously recollecting the past.
INCREASES FROM INFANCY TO ADULTHOOD, DECLINES IN OLD AGE
Chunking
Organization of information that involves reducing long strings of information that can be difficult to remember down into shorter, more manageable chunks. (age 10+)
Scripts
A mental representation of a typical sequence of actions related to an event that is created in memory and that then guides future behaviors in similar settings.
Information Processing across lifespan:
STM stores to LTM.
LTM retrieves from STM.
Fluid Intelligence
Aspects of intelligence that involve actively thinking and reasoning to solve novel problems.
Crystallized Intelligence
Those aspects of intellectual functioning that involve using knowledge acquired through experience.
Sternberg’s Contextual Subtheory
Intelligence is having the abilities to succeed i life and optimize strengths and compensate for weaknesses.
Attention to HOW intelligent answers are produced.
Flynn Effect
The rise in average IQ scores over the 20th century.
Racial/Ethnic difference in IQ:
Lower mean IQ score by 20.
Infant Intelligent Abilities:
- habituates quickly
- speedy information processor
Child Intelligent Abilities:
- stability of IQ scores becomes greater at age 4
Adolescent Intelligent Abilities:
- increased stability in IQ to adulthood
- improved memory and processing skills
Adult Intelligent Abilities:
- high IQ predicts success
- IQ declines around 80
Semantics
The aspect of language centering on meanings.
Pragmatics
Rules specifying how language is to be used appropriately in different social contexts to achieve goals.
Syntax
Rules specifying how words can be combined to form meaningful sentences in a language.
Phonology
Basic units of sound within a given language.
Underextension
The young child’s tendency to use general words to refer to a smaller set of objects, actions, or events than adults do.
(For example, using candy to refer only to mints.)
Overextension
The young child’s tendency to use a word to refer to a wider set of objects, actions, or events than adults do.
(For example, using the word car to refer to all motor vehicles.)
Critical/Sensitive periods for language development:
Presumably ends around puberty when brain lateralization is coming to an end.
Achievement Motivation
Mastery goals to improve abilities associated with better outcomes.
Achievement Motivation in Adolescents:
- lower achievement and self esteem
- strengths and weaknesses viewed more realistically
- less praise for accomplishments
- peer pressure
Achievement Motivation in Teens:
- better grades
- more likely to graduate
- higher career aspirations
- higher status occupations in adulthood
Achievement Motivation in Adulthood:
- generally stable
- work outside of home
- continuing education after age 25. more motivated to do well
Similarities between Freud and Erikson:
- stages
- ego
Differences between Freud and Erikson:
Oral = trust v. mistrust Anal = autonomy v. shame/doubt phallic = initiative v/ guilt latent = industry v. inferiority genital = identity v. role confusion No Freud in adulthood
Name each of the Big 5:
OCEAN :)
- Openness to experience
- Conscientiousness
- Extraversion
- Agreeableness
- Neuroticism
Characteristics of Openness:
fantasy, esthetics, feelings, actions, ideas, values
Characteristics of Conscientiousness:
competence, order, dutifulness, striving for achievement, self-discipline, deliberation
Characteristics of Extraversion:
warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement seeking, positive emotions
Characteristics of Agreeableness:
trust, straightforwardness, altruism, compliance, modesty, tender-mindedness
Characteristics of Neuroticism:
anxiety, hostility, depression, self-consciousness, impulsiveness, vulnerability
Temperament
A genetically based pattern of tendencies to respond in predictable ways; building blocks of personality such as activity level, sociability, and emotionality.
Marcia’s Model of Identity Achievement
- interviewed adolescents to determine where they were in identity development
Research says about midlife crisis:
Not supported by research.
How gay, don’t ask then lol
Identity Diffusion (Marcia)
No sense of having choices; he or she has not made a commitment
Identity Foreclosure (Marcia)
Seems willing to commit to relevant roles, values, or goals for the future.
Has not explored range of options; conforms to expectations of others.
Identity Moratorium (Marcia)
Currently in a crisis, exploring various commitments, ready to make choices, but not committed to these choices.
Identity Achievement (Marcia)
Gone through crisis and has made a commitment to a sense of identity they chose.
Gender Roles
A pattern of behaviors and traits that defines how to act the part of a female or a male in a particular society.
Gender Stereotypes
Overgeneralized and largely inaccurate beliefs about what males and females are like.
Gender Typing
The process by which children become aware of their gender and acquire the motives, values, and behaviors considered appropriate for members of their biological sex.
Androgyny
A gender-role orientation in which the person blends both positive masculine-stereotyped and positive feminine-stereotyped personality traits.
Androgyny Shift
A psychological change that begins in midlife, when parenting responsibilities are over, in which both men and women retain their gender-typed qualities but add to them qualities traditionally associated with the other sex, thus becoming more androgynous.
Sexual Orientation
A person’s preference for sexual partners of the same or other sex, often characterized as primarily heterosexual, homo- sexual, or bisexual.
Gender differences in intellectual abilities:
Females: better verbal abilities, better memory
Males: better spatial and math abilities
Gender Intensification
A magnification of differences between males and females during adolescence associated with increased pressure to conform to traditional gender roles.
Belief Psychology
The theory of mind reflecting an understanding that people’s desires and beliefs guide their behavior and that their beliefs are not always an accurate reflection of reality; evident by age 4.
Dodge’s Model
Antisocial and Aggressive - Hostile youth interpret social exchanges in a hostile way
Coercive Family Environment
A home in which family members are locked in power struggles, each trying to control the other through aggressive tactics such as threatening, yelling, and hitting.
Preconventional Morality (Kohlberg)
Stage 1 &2 - Society’s rules are not yet internalized and judgments are based on the punishing or rewarding consequences of an act.
Conventional Morality (Kohlberg)
Stage 3 &4 - Societal values are internalized and judgments are based on a desire to gain approval or uphold law and social order.
Postconventional Morality (Kohlberg)
Stage 5 &6 - Moral judgments are based on a more abstract understanding of democratic social contracts or on universal principles of justice that have validity apart from the views of particular authority figures.
Harlow’s Monkey Studies:
No source of protection: baby seeks comfort and remains fearful.
Wire: no comfort for baby
Cloth: provides comfort for baby, courage to explore, defend against enemies
Attachment in Adolescents:
Parent Relationships: still important, good attachment = better self-esteem
Peer Relationships: friendships = more intimacy, dating, cliques
Culture and Infant Attachment:
A “secure” attachment can look different from one culture to the next.
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
Carstensen’s notion that our needs change as we grow older and that we actively choose to narrow our range of social partners to those who can best meet our emotional needs.
Resistant Attachment
Caregiver: inconsistent in meeting child’s needs
Child: separation anxiety, reacts with anger when mom returns
Avoidant Attachment
Caregiver: largely unresponsive to child’s needs
Child: learns attempts are useless, no distress, no contact upon return of mom
Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment
Child: fearful or parent, avoids, emotional issues later in life
What factors influence marital satisfaction?
- honeymoon period is short
- behavioral changes, fewer compliments or affection
- decline during 1st year of baby and with more kids
Empty Nest + effects
The term used to describe the family after the last child departs the household.
Increased martial satisfaction, decreased stress
Mid-Generation Squeeze
The phenomenon in which middle-aged adults sometimes experience heavy responsibilities for both the younger and the older generations in the family.
Authoritative Parenting
Reasonable demands, consistently enforced, sensitivity to and acceptance of the child.
Permissive Parenting
Few rules and demands, children are allowed much freedom by indulgent parents.
Authoritarian Parenting
Many rules and demands, few explanations and little sensitivity to child’s needs/perspectives.
Neglectful Parenting
Few rules and demands, parents are uninvolved and insensitive to their child’s needs.
Developmental Pathways Model
Psychopathology is a pattern that develops over time. Dependent on interactions between person, environment, and genetics. Explains individual differences in pathology.
Diathesis Stress Model
The view that psychopathology results from the interaction of a person’s predisposition to psychological problems and the experience of stressful events.
Possible causes of Autism:
Unknown.
May be related to genetics, faster than normal brain growth in 1st year.
Not from bad parenting or vaccinations
Psychological health across lifespan:
Adolescents: anxiety, depression, confusion, eating disorders
Old Age: depression, dementia, delirium, Alzheimer’s
Signs and Symptoms of Alzheimer’s:
slow and steady, subtle difficulty learning/remembering, eventually loses ability to function independently.
Hayflick Limit
The estimate that human cells can double only 50 times, plus or minus 10, and then will die.
Denial
A defense mechanism in which anxiety-provoking thoughts are kept out of, or isolated from, conscious awareness.
Kubler-Ross Theory
Stages:
- Denial
- Anger
- Bargaining
- Depression
- Acceptance
Numbess (Parkes/Bowlby)
unreality, disbelief
Yearning (Parkes/Bowlby)
preoccupation with loved one, uncontrollable weeping, inability to concentrate or sleep, self-blame
Despair (Parkes/Bowlby)
most of 1st year after death
Reorganization (Parkes/Bowlby)
“pulling it together”
Parkes/Bowlby Model of Bereavement
Four main reactions to separation from a loved one.
Universality
Death happens to all of us.
Irreversibility
Death cannot be undone.
Finality
Cessation of life and life processes.
Do I love you?
Forever and ever babe.
