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FOOD2010 Final Exam > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

Food Chemistry

A

Chemical components and physical properties of food ex. functional properties of lipids

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2
Q

Food Microbiology

A

Examines the role of microorganisms in foods ex. food spoilage

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3
Q

Food Processing

A

Techniques for preparing and packaging food to ensure safety, wholesomeness, consistency, and nutritional quality ex. method for food preservation

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4
Q

Food Engineering

A

Applying physical and engineering principles to control unit operations in food processing ex. madd transfer

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5
Q

Food Market Factors

A

Ensure marketability of food products ex. food industry trends

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6
Q

Stakeholder

A

One who holds an interest in something

- food industry has many stakeholders because everyone needs to eat

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7
Q

Chain of Production

A

Series of integrated steps originating from production of raw agricultural commodities to consumption of finished products in a home
- “farm to fork”

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8
Q

Major Global Trading Blocks

A

Countries that band together in hopes of creating a mutually beneficial trade relationship
ex. NAFTA - North American Free Trade Agreement between Canada, US, and Mexico

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9
Q

Global Food Issues

A
  • Food insecurity: availability and attainability of nutritional food is inadequate
  • Malnutrition: being undernourished
  • Hunger: the uneasy or painful sensation caused by a recurrent or involuntary lack of food
  • Problems related to foodborne illness, sustainable agricultural practices, marketing, food security and prevention of malnutrition
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10
Q

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

A

Prompting agricultural development, food security and improving nutrition

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11
Q

World Health Organization (WHO)

A

Promoting safe food production, handling practices, carries out epidemiological surveillance of a variety of diseases of public health significance

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12
Q

First system of approximating the value of food

A

Developed at the Weende Experiment station in Germany

  • separates food into nutritive fractions through a series of chemical determinations
  • known as proximate analysis
  • fractions include: water/dry matter, crude protein, ether extract (fat), crude fiber, nitrogen free extract (carbs), ash and total minerals
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13
Q

Newer methods for determining nutritive content

A
  • Spectrophotometry
  • Liquid chromatography
  • Gas chromatography
  • Determination of fatty acids, cholesterol, amino acids, specific minerals and vitamins
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14
Q

Calorie

A

A metric unit of heat

  • small calorie (cal) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of 1g of water to 15.5C from 14.5C
  • 1 cal = 4.184J
  • large calorie (Cal) = 1000cal, express energy released from foods
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15
Q

Bomb Calorimeters

A

Used to determine the calorie content in the food

  • Enclosure when the rxn takes place, surrounded by water to absorb the heat of the rxn
  • Measurement of the temperature increase increase with the known weight of food permits the amount of heat generated to be calculated
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16
Q

Muscle cramps

A

Can occur because of a depletion or an imbalance of salts in the muscle (calcium, sodium, phosphorus) which are lost in sweat

  • Build up of lactic acid also contributes to cramping
  • Drinking electrolyte drinks and foods high in sodium and potassium will help relieve cramps
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17
Q

FAO

A
  • Formed in October of 1945 with a mandate to raise levels of nutrition and standards of living, improve agricultural productivity, better the condition of rural populations
  • Largest autonomous agency within the UN with 180 members plus the European community
  • Works to alleviate poverty and hunger by promoting agricultural development, improved nutrition and the support of food security - access to all people at all time to the goods they need for an active and healthy lifestyle
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18
Q

WHO

A
  • Promote high quality of health in all people
  • “Health” is defined as a state of complete and physical, mental, and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity
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19
Q

Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC)

A

Established in order to develop international standards to facilitate international trade in food, and to protect the health of consumers
- Responsible for developing and maintaining a set of rules called the Codex Alimentarius (“food code”) and is updated annually , used for the reference in the case of any international food related disputes brought to the WTO

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20
Q

World Trade Organization (WTO)

A

Foundation of the multilateral trading system for trade in goods, services, and intellectual property, provides a framework for governments to develop and implement domestic trade legislation and regulations

  • Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS)
  • Agreement on Technical Barrier to Trade (TBT)
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21
Q

Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CIFA)

A

Responsible for inspecting all food products sold in Canada, including imported food product
- Brings together the Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Health Canada, and Fisheries and Oceans Canada

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22
Q

Health Canada

A

Protect the Canadian public from life threatening hazards in the food supply, in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, in medical or radiation emitting devices and in the environment

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23
Q

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC)

A

Inspection, research, and support programs related to agriculture, rural development and export market development

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24
Q

Fisheries and Oceans Canada

A

Manage Canada’s oceans and major waterways so that they are clean, safe, productive, and accessible

  • Ensure sustainable use of fishery resources
  • Facilitate marine trade and commerce
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25
Q

Department of Foreign affairs and International Trade (DFAIT)

A

Impacts the food industry through its negotiation of various international trade agreements such as NAFTA and the General Agreement on Trade Tariffs (GATT)

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26
Q

Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

A

Major food regulatory agency in the US is primarily responsible for the safety and quality of domestic and imported foods, drugs and food additives

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27
Q

Centre for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN)

A

Conducting research and developing standards for dealing with composition, quality and safety, detect, prevention, and controlling contamination, overseeing the FDA’s surveillance and complain program, reviewing industry petitions

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28
Q

Candian Laws

A
  • Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA)
  • Health Canada
  • Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC)
  • Fisheries and Oceans Canada
  • Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade (DFAIT)
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29
Q

American Laws

A
  • Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
  • Centre for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN)
  • Food Safety Inspection Services (FSIS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
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30
Q

Food Safety Inspection Services (FSIS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)

A

Responsible for the inspection and grading of the meat, poultry, and egg products
- Launched a major initiative that affects suppliers and buyers called the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP)

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31
Q

European Union

A

Each country has its own legislation concerning the manufacture and labelling of prepacked foods, however it moves towards a single internal market (EU goal)

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32
Q

Australia

A

The Australian New Zealand Food Authority (ANZFA) is responsible for the development of new food legislation

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33
Q

Japan

A

Two government agencies that are primarily responsible for the food control system

  • The Ministry of Health and Welfare
  • The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries
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34
Q

Requirements for Food Product Labelling (Canada)

A
  • Common name of the product
  • Net quantity in metric units
  • Name and address of the manufacturer or distributor
  • List of ingredients in descending order of proportion to weight
  • Best before date with storage instructions
  • Nutrition Labelling
  • Must be in both French and English
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35
Q

US Label Differences

A
  • Product Name
  • Statement of net quantity
  • Ingredient list in descending order
  • Name and address of manufacturer
  • Nutrition facts panel
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36
Q

Kosher

A
  • Must meet the requirements of Kashruth
  • Certified by Rabbinical organizations
  • Kosher symbol and labelling indication Kosher status
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37
Q

Halal

A

Conforms to Islamic dietary laws

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38
Q

Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act

A

Regulates the labelling for all foods other than meat and poultry

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39
Q

Meat Inspection Act

A

meat and poultry products are regulated by the US department of Agriculture (USDA) under this federal act

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40
Q

Infant Health Formula Act

A

Provides that manufactured formulas contain the known essential nutrients at the correct levels

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41
Q

Nutrition Labelling and Education Act

A

Protects consumers against partial truths, mixed messages and fraud regarding nutrition information

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42
Q

GRAS

A

Generally Recognized as Safe

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43
Q

Food Additive Categories (12)

A
  • Preservatives
  • Antioxidants
  • Flavouring agents
  • Sweeteners
  • Emulsifiers, stabilizers, and thickeners
  • Leavening agents
  • Anti caking agents
  • Humectants
  • Colouring agents
  • Bleaches
  • Acids, bases and buffers
  • Nutrients
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44
Q

Testing for Safety

A
  • Pesticides, herbicides, chemical additives, and spoilage are all of concern
  • E. coli is commonly employed as an indicator organism because it is a coliform bacteria common to the intestinal tract of humans/animals and its relationship to food borne pathogens is high
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45
Q

Standard Plate Count (SPC)

A

Total counts of viable microorganisms

  • Indication of the sanitary quality of food
  • Low SPC may not always reflect a safe product, it is possible to have a low count in which toxin production organism have grown
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46
Q

Ouality Assurance

A

Continually monitor incoming raw milk and finished milk products to ensure compliance with compositional standards and governmental regulations

  • Compliance with specification (legal requirements and standard of the company and customer)
  • Testing procedures (raw, in process, and finished)
  • Sampling
  • Records and reporting
  • Troubleshooting
  • Special problems (customer complaints, production problems, personnel training, short courses)
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47
Q

FDA Labels

A
  • Serving size
  • Servings per container
  • Calories per serving
  • Grams of protein, carbohydrate, and fat per serving
  • Perfect of the US RDA from protein, five vitamins and two minerals
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48
Q

USDA Labels

A
  • Serving size
  • Servings per container
  • Calories per serving
  • Grams of protein, carbohydrates, and fat per serving
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49
Q

New Food Label

A

Passage of the Nutrition Labelling Education Act (NLEA) in 1990

  • Nutrition labels for almost all foods
  • Distinctive, easy to read format
  • Information on the amount per serving of saturated fat, cholesterol, dietary fibre and other nutrients
  • Nutritive reference values expressed as percentage daily values
  • Uniform definitions for terms that describe a food nutrient content like light, low-fat, and high fibre
  • Claims about the relationship between a nutrient or food and a disease or health related concern
  • Standardized serving sizes
  • Declaration of total percentage of juice in juice drinks
  • Voluntary nutrition information for many raw foods
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50
Q

Exemptions for the New Food Label:

A
  • Food served to immediate consumption: hospital, airplanes, mall, vending machines
  • Ready to eat food that is not for immediate consumption but is prepared primarily on site: bakery, deli, and candy store items
  • Food shipped in bulk, as long as it is not for sale in that form to consumers
  • Medical foods such as those used to address the nutritional needs of patients with certain disease
  • Plain coffee and tea and some spices and other foods that contain no significant amount of any amounts of nutrients
  • Foods produced by a small businesses based on the number of people a company employs
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51
Q

Dietary Components on Nutritional Panel

A
  • Total Calories
  • Calories from fat
  • Calories for unsaturated fat
  • Total fat
  • Saturated Fat
  • Poly and Mono saturated Fat
  • Cholesterol
  • Sodium
  • Potassium
  • Total Carbohydrate
  • Dietary Fibre
  • Soluble and Insoluble fibre
  • Sugar and sugar alcohols (xylitol, mannitol, sorbitol)
  • Protein
  • Vit A and as a % of beta carotene
  • Vit C
  • Calcium
  • Iron
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52
Q

Free

A

Product contains no amount of, or only trivial or physiological inconsequential amount of said component

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53
Q

Low

A

Can be used on foods that can be eaten frequently without exceeding daily guidelines for said component

  • Low fat: 3g or less
  • Low Saturated Fat: 1g or less
  • Low sodium: 140mg or less
  • Very low sodium: 35mg or less
  • Low cholesterol: 20mg or less and 2g or less of saturated fat
  • Low calorie: 40 calories or less
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54
Q

Lean and Extra Lean

A

Can be used to describe the fat content of meat, poultry, seafood, and game meats

  • Lean: less than 10g fat, 4.5g or less saturated fat and less than 95mg of cholesterol per serving and per 100g
  • Extra Lean: less than 5g, 2.5g or less saturated fat, and less than 95mg cholesterol per serving and per 100g
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55
Q

High

A

Can be used if the food contains 20% or more of the Daily Value for a particular in a nutrient

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56
Q

Good Source

A

One serving of food contains 10-19% of the Daily Value for a particular nutrient

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57
Q

Reduced

A

A nutritionally altered product that contains at least 25% less of a nutrient or calories than the regular product
- Cannot be used if the term “low” is used

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58
Q

Less

A

Contains 24% less of a nutrient or calories than the reference food

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59
Q

Light

A

A nutritionally altered food that contains one third fewer calories or half the reference food or the sodium content of a low calories, low fat food has been reduced by 50%

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60
Q

More

A

Contain a nutrient that is more than 10% of the Daily Value in comparison to the reference food
- Can be applied to fortified, enriched and added claims

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61
Q

Perfect Fat Free

A

Must be low or fat free product, must accurately reflect the amount of fat present in 100g of food
- if the food contains 2.5g of fat per 50g the claim would be 95% fat free

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62
Q

Implied

A

Prohibited when they wrongfully imply that a food contains or does not contain a meaningful level of a nutrient
- Food in claim must be considered a good source

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63
Q

Healthy

A

Low is fat and saturated fat and contain limited amounts of cholesterol and sodium
- Provide 10% of Vit A, C, iron, calcium, protein or fibre

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64
Q

Fresh

A

Must be raw, never been frozen or heated, and contain no preservatives, but irradiation at low levels are allowed
- “Frozen fresh” or “freshly frozen” can be said the product undergoes flash freezing while still fresh

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65
Q

Allowable Health Claims

A
  • Calcium and osteoporosis
  • Fat and cancer
  • Saturated fat/cholesterol and coronary heart disease
  • Fibre containing grain products, fruits and veggies and cancer
  • Fruits, vegetables, fibre containing grain products and CHD
  • Sodium and hypertension
  • Fruits/veggies and cancer
  • Colic acid and neural tube defects
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66
Q

People with Allergies have triggered the following labels

A
  • FDA certified colour additives such as FD&C and Blue No.1
  • Sources of protein hydrolysates, which are used in many foods as flavours and enhancers
  • Declaration of caseinate as mild derivative in the ingredients in foods that claim to be non-dairy (coffee whiteners)
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67
Q

How much energy do carbohydrates provide in kilocalories per gram

A

4

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68
Q

Inversion

A

Inversion of sugars refers to the hydrolysis of sucrose into fructose and glucose (sometime referred to as invert sugars)
- Need an enzyme or acid present

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69
Q

Caramelization

A

Application of heat to the point that sugars dehydrate and breakdown to polymerize, occurs once the melting point is reached and is attributed to the browning reaction and flavour development

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70
Q

Crystallization

A
  • Can be problematic depending on the product (in locse will make nonfat milk difficult to disperse and can cause a gritty texture)
  • Candies can be divided into two categories: 1) crystalline include fudge, fondant, and other candies that have crystals as an important structural function; 2) noncrystalline include caramels, brittles, taffies, marshmallows, and gumdrops
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71
Q

Rate of Crystallization

A

Is the speed at which nuclei grow into crystals

  • Rate is dependant on the concentration of the solute in solution (more concentrated will crystallize less rapidly than a less concentrated syrup will
  • Higher temp = slower crystallization
  • Agitation distributes the crystal forming nuclei and hastens crystallization
  • Impurities delay crystallization
  • Caramels prevent crystallization
  • Fat and protein decrease the number and size of crystals
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72
Q

Starch

A
  • Make up of glucose links
  • Storage form for plants (glycogen in humans)
  • Directs starch to amylose where they are deposited to form granules
  • Two forms of starch: amylose and pectin
  • Amylose contributes to gel formation - linear chain can orient parallel to each other, moving close enough to bond
  • Amylopectin is branching giving it viscosity, side chains are bulky which keeps them from orienting close enough to bond
  • Different proportions in plants give starch its characteristics properties in cooking and gel formation
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73
Q

Gelantinization

A
  • When starches are put in cold water, the grains may absorb a small amount of liquid
  • The degree of reversibility is dependant on the temperature and particular starch
  • High temperatures create an irreversible swelling cause gelatinization
  • Begins between 60-70F
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74
Q

Cellulose

A
  • Most common polysaccharide
  • Polymer of glucose linked by C1 and 4
  • Cannot be digested by humans
  • Major source of dietary fibre
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75
Q

Pectin

A

A polymer of galacturonic acid and is not digested

- Cements cells together in plants

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76
Q

Functions of Proteins

A
  • Enzymes
  • Storage
  • Transport
  • Contractile
  • Protective
  • Hormones
  • Structural
  • Membranes
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77
Q

Malliard Reaction

A
  • Function of protein in foods
  • A browning reaction between amino acids that occurs in baked products and other foods
  • Colour pigments are bound in chloroplast in a protein lipid matrix
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78
Q

Texture in Custards + Yogurt

A
  • Protein gels where the gel strength is influenced by the ovalbumin denaturation
  • Yogurt texture is influenced by the gelation of caesin
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79
Q

Cholesterol

A

A fat only found in animal products

  • Not an essential nutrient
  • Used for: bile salt, membrane structure, myelin synthesis, vit D synthesis, and steroid hormone synthesis
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80
Q

Antioxidants

A

Used to inhibit the oxidation of lipids

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81
Q

Fatty Acids

A
  • Even number of carbons
  • Short chain contribute to odours
  • Longer chains are not volatile and do not contribute to flavour
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82
Q

Double Bonds

A
  • Unsaturated
  • Exist naturally in cis, or in trans
  • Very reactive with oxygen
  • Products of lipid oxidation have undesirable flavours and are rancid
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83
Q

Triglycerides

A

3 molecules of fatty acids linked by a glycerol that contain a phosphorus
- Not essential because body can synthesize it

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84
Q

Vitamin A

A
  • Fat soluble
  • Most commonly beta carotene
  • Susceptible to oxidation but relatively heat stable
  • 3 forms: retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid
85
Q

Vitamin D

A
  • Fat soluble
  • Active form: cholecalciferol, produced from cholesterol by the activation of heat and UV light
  • Can be formed for provitamin
  • Stored in liver and function with the absorption of Ca, K and reabsorption of Ca and K in the kidney
86
Q

Vitamin E

A
  • Fat soluble
  • Known as alpha tocopherol
  • Detoxify oxidizing radicals, stabilizes membranes, regulates oxidation, protect Vit A and PUFA’s from oxidation
87
Q

Vitamin K

A
  • Fat soluble
  • Functions in normal blood clotting
  • Minimal storage
88
Q

Thiamin

A
  • Water soluble
  • Carbohydrate metabolism
  • Makes ribose to form RNA
  • Maintains normal appetite and normal muscle tone in digestive tract
89
Q

Riboflavin

A
  • Water soluble

- Coenzyme involved in redox rxns in energy production

90
Q

Niacin

A
  • Water soluble

- Component of 2 enzymes involved in redox rxns resulting in release of energy from food

91
Q

Vitamin B6

A
  • Water soluble

- Metabolism of amino acids and conversion of glycogen to glucose

92
Q

Pantothenic Acid

A
  • Water soluble
  • Part of Coenzyme A involved in the synthesis and breakdown of fats, carbs, proteins
  • Also a part of enzyme for FA synthase
93
Q

Folic Acid

A
  • Water soluble
  • Coenzyme form is tetrahydrofolic acid
  • Functions in the transfer of form and hydroxymethyl groups
  • Required for synthesis of purines and pyrimidines and efficient use of histidine
94
Q

Cobalamin or Vit B12

A
  • Water soluble
  • Required for nucleic acid synthesis, amino acid synthesis, blood cell formation, neural function and growth
  • Only found in animal products
95
Q

Biotin

A
  • Water soluble

- FA synthesis

96
Q

Vitamin C

A
  • Water soluble
  • Ascorbic acid functions in healing, collagen synthesis, iron absorption, antioxidant, conversion of AA, creation of neurotransmitters
  • Least stable vitamin
  • Oxidizes readily and degradation is enhance by iron and copper
97
Q

Macrominerals (7)

A
  • Calcium: homeostasis
  • Phosphorus: energy transfer rxn and synthesis of lipids and proteins
  • Potassium: maintain acid-base balance and osmotic pressure inside the cells
  • Sodium: maintain acid-base balance outside the cells and regulates osmosis of body fluids, also involved in muscle function
  • Chloride: important extracellular anion involved in acid-base balance and osmotic regulation
  • Magnesium: activator of enzymes
  • Sulphur: component of AA, biotin, thiamin, insulin, and chondroitin sulphate
98
Q

Microminerals (17)

A
  • Chromium: glucose tolerance, stimulation of FA synthesis, insulin metabolism, and protein digestion
  • Cobalt: part of VitB12
  • Copper
  • Fluoride: bone and teeth development
  • Iodine: regular thyroid hormone that regular basal metabolic rate (BMR)
  • Iron: RBS and muscles
  • Manganese: carbohydrate and fat metabolism, for the synthesis of cartilage
  • Molybdenum: enzyme xanthine oxidase
  • Nickel
  • Selenium: detoxification of certain peroxidases that are toxic to cell membranes, work with Vit E
  • Silicon: bone development
  • Tin
  • Vanadium
  • Zinc: necessary for enzymes
  • Cadium
  • Boron
  • Aluminum
99
Q

Water Functions (7)

A
  • Carries nutrients and waste
  • Maintains structure of molecules
  • Participates in chemical rxns
  • Acts as a solvent for nutrients
  • Lubricates and cushions joints, spinal cord, and fetus
  • Helps regulate body temperature
  • Maintain blood volume
100
Q

Dehydration

A

When the output exceeds the input

- Signs: dry skin, dry mucous membranes, rapid heartbeat, low BP, and weakness

101
Q

Biotin

A

Also known as vitamin H and coenzyme R

  • Found in liver, kidney and muscles
  • Essential cofactor for 4 carboxylates that catalyze the incorporation of cellular bicarbonate into the carbon backbone of organic compounds
102
Q

Choline

A

Apart of several major phospholipids that are crucial for normal membrane structure and function

  • Major precursor of renin which is used by the kidney to maintain water balance and by the liver as a source of methyl groups for methionine function
  • Produce neurotransmitter acetylcholine
103
Q

Phytochemicals

A
  • Attract insects to encourage fertilization, defences against predators (viruses and animals)
  • Extracted from leaves, stems, roots, flowers, and fruits of plants
  • Three main categories: 1) Toxic and no therapeutic use (pyrrolizidine alkaloids, nicotine, and hydrazine derivatives); 2) Toxic but useful for treatment of disease when use in controlled amount for defined clinical conditions (morphine, digitalis, vinca alkaloids); 3) Chemopreventive activity are compounds useful against diseases such as atherosclerosis, cancer and diverticular disease
  • Eating fruit/veggies can prevent cancer and other diseases if they are high in molecular weight fibers which are associated with chemopreventive activity
104
Q

Hurdle technology

A

Method of ensuring that pathogens in food products can be eliminated or controlled. This means the food products will be safe for consumption, and their shelf life will be extended

  • Hurdle technology usually works by combining more than one approach
  • All of the methods and techniques that the textbook and unit materials cover about reducing pathogen growth or promoting good microbial growth
  • Fermentation is an example.
  • Basically anything that has to do with microorganism growth or preventing food spoilage
105
Q

Food Additive

A

Any substance used to affect the characteristics of a food
- Nutritive materials such as vitamins, minerals, spices, seasonings, flavouring, chemical, packaging materials and veterinary drugs are NOT classified as additives

106
Q

Reasons for using additives

A
  • Maintain nutritional quality (antioxidant retard oxidation in fats)
  • Food preservation (mould inhibitors)
  • Improve product appearance (food colouring)
  • Aid during processing, packing, or storage (humectants used to maintain soft texture in soft cookies)
107
Q

Why is food composition information important

A
  • Establishment of nutritional databases
  • Ensure regulatory compliance
  • Market surveillance
  • Quality control
108
Q

How is food composition determined?

A

1) Test based on actual product - expensive, yet accurate

2) Estimate based on nutritional database - cheaper, but compromises accuracy

109
Q

Delaney Clause

A

Food industry cannot add any substance to food if it induces cancer when ingested by man or animal, or if it is found that after testing and proper evaluation of the safety of food additives, to induce cancer in man or animals

110
Q

Unacceptable reasons for food additives

A
  • To disguise inferior products
  • To deceive the consumer
  • Provide otherwise desirable results that lower the nutritional value
  • Replace food manufacturing practices
  • To use in amounts greater than necessary
111
Q

Perservatives

A
  • Includes antioxidants, sequestrants, and anti-microbial agents
  • Sequestrants are chelating agents (organic compounds that reaction with metallic ions to bind in a relative inactive structure, ultimately preventing metals from catalyzing reactions of fat oxidation, pigment discolouration, flavour loss, and odour loss
112
Q

Nutritional Additives

A
  • Vitamins and minerals are added to make them more nutritious and replaces nutrients that are lost during processing
  • Ex. Milk has been enriched with Vit D, margarine with Vit A and D added
113
Q

Colour Modifiers

A
  • Include natural and synthetic
  • Classified as “certifiable” or “exempt for certification”
  • Certifiable: available for use in dyes or lakes
  • Dye: dissolves in water and are made as powders, granules, liquids; used in beverages, dry mixes, baked good, confectioneries, dairy products and pet foods
  • Lakes: insoluble form of dye, more stable and ideal for colour products containing fats, oils, or items lacking sufficient moisture to dissolve dyes; used in coated tablets, cakes, donut mixes, and hard candies
114
Q

Flavouring Agents

A
  • Spices and liquid derivations off onion, garlic, cloves, and peppermint to enhance flavour
  • Synthetic flavourings have been developed that have been proved to be more stable than the natural flavours
115
Q

Texturizing Agents

A
  • Emulsifiers: known as surface active agents, improve the uniformity of food (mono and diglycerides, polysorbate 60 + 80, lecithin)
  • Stabilizers and Thickeners: adds smoothness, colour and flavour uniformity to foods such as ice cream, chocolate milk, and artificially sweetened beverages (pectin, vegetable gums, and gelatins)
116
Q

Acidulants

A
  • Make food acid or sour
  • Added to primarily change the pas and to control microbial growth
  • Citric acid, acetic acid, phosphoric acid, hydrochloric acid
117
Q

Fat Replacers

A
  • Reduce the fat intake by using fat replacers, substitutes, extenders, mimetic or synthetic fat
  • Include various carbohydrate based, protein based and fat based replaces for different food categories
  • Olean, Olestra, Amalen I and II, cellulose and hemicellulose, chitosan (fibre of crustaceans), hydrocolloids
118
Q

Irradiation

A
  • Safe and last longer
  • Control of microorganisms on beef, lamb, and pork is safe and reduces chances of illness
  • Irradiation of fruits and vegetables means longer shelf life
  • Passes through food without leaving any residue
  • Kills bacteria and other pathogens in food
  • Never comes into contact with food therefore it doesn’t become radioactive
119
Q

Food Spoilage

A
  • Detectable by the sense
  • Result of chemical reactions (oxidation of lipids) or physical changes or damage (dehydration, bruising) or growth of spoilage microorganisms
  • Include: mould, slime, discolouration, gas bubbles or pockets, soft mushy texture (presence of exudate), off odours or flavours
120
Q

Compare and contrast the risk-benefit and negligible risk concept

A
  • The risk-benefit argument: adverse effects is real, but the anticipated benefits ‘outweigh’ the risks, argument is often applied to justify the use of food additives.
  • The negligible risk concept: or “acceptable risk” is value-laden from the standpoint of societal and personal willingness to tolerate certain types and degrees of risk.
121
Q

Explain how regulatory efforts have addressed functional foods, genetically modified foods, and organic foods

A

FDA stresses that GMOs and normal food all have to meet the same set of standards, so should be equally safe

122
Q

Define the steps in proximate analysis

A
  1. Determine moisture content
  2. Find crude protein content using the kjeldahl determination of nitrogen
  3. Determine crude fat content using a petroleum ether
  4. Determine crude fibre content after acid and alkaline hydrolysis
  5. Conduct nitrogen-free extracts to see carbohydrates
    Obtain ash by incineration
123
Q

Construct nutritional labels:

A
  1. Choose an appropriate serving size
  2. Convert the nutrient data into values based upon the serving size selected
  3. Calculate the % Daily Value. Divide the data from one serving by the reference standards or recommended daily intakes
  4. Ensure that nutrient contents presented on the label comply with regulatory protocols for rounding numbers
  5. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for each additional nutrient
124
Q

Food Borne Infection vs. Intoxication

A
  • Infection: organism must enter the body via ingestion, once ingestion, they multiply in the intestine and secete toxins which make you sick, fever is often observed
  • Intoxication: toxins are ingested, not necessarily the organism, fever is not assocaited
125
Q

Botulinal toxin

A

Highly potent neurotoxin which blocks the release of acetylcholine in nerve receptors

  • Death occurs due to paralysis of muscles involving breathing
  • Common symptoms include: double vision, dizziness, and muscular weakness, eventually leading to paralysis
126
Q

Pathogenic Bacteria

A
  • E. coli and Salmonella are common outbreaks
  • Many outbreaks a year, seasonal pattern with an increase in the summer months
  • Outbreak = two or more people are affecting and develop a similar illness after eating a common food
127
Q

Toxin - Producing Molds

A
  • Mycotoxins: toxic metabolites produced by certain mould and fungi, associated with nuts and grains
  • Favourable growth when exposed to moisture
  • Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium are mostly associated with mycotoxin production
  • Aflatoxin produced by Aspergillius flavus remains a concern in grains and peanuts as is a suspected cause of liver cancer
  • Concern to farmers as livestock is fed cereal grains and corn
  • Ergotism: in the Middle Ages people ate grains contaminated with mycotoxins
128
Q

Viruses

A
  • Consists of nucleic acids surrounded by a protein coat
  • Intracellular parasites (cannot grow outside of living host cells)
  • Shellfish harvested from water polluted by sewage pose a hazard because these animals are filter feeders and tend to pick up containment from water
  • Inadequate attention to food handlers is also a mode of transmission
  • Attack lactic acid bacteria = bacteriophages and are not pathogenic but can destroy bacteria cultures (cheese making culture is esp. vulnerable)
129
Q

Dinoflagellates in Shellfish

A
  • Unicellular marine algae which are responsible for paralytic and neurotoxic shellfish positing (aka red tide)
  • In tropic areas, there is a risk of ciguatera poisoning from consumption of tropic fish
  • Secrete toxins which do not harm marine animals, potentially lethal if ingested in humans
130
Q

Parasites

A
  • Typically infest beef, pork or fish
  • Parasitic roundworms, tapeworms, and nematodes require a host during some point in their life cycles
  • Consumption of meat muscle which is infested by adult parasites or larval cysts which may become established in human tissues
  • Trichinella roundworm in port and tania tapeworm in beef and pork are examples
  • Fruits and veggies are not immune to contamination
  • Cyclospora parasites in raspberries, viral hepatitis in frozen strawberries, E.coli in alfalfa sprouts, Listeria monocytogenes in coleslaw and Salmonella in tomatoes and cantaloupe
131
Q

Microbial Pathogen in Water

A
  • Contaminated by bacteria, viruses, and parasites due to a variety of reasons (contaminated well, inadequate water treatment, defective pipes, flooding, contaminated run off)
  • Often the result of sewage discharge into water courses
  • Spread via fecal-oral route in which fecal microorganisms in contaminated water infect humans after ingestion, and may be subsequently excreted again to perpetuate the cycle
  • Employees not practicing good personal hygiene
132
Q

Control of Detrimental Microorganisms

A
  • Kill or inactivate viable living microorganisms and prevent them from reproducing
  • Goal to keep the size of detrimental microbial population low so risk of harm is low
  • Intrinsic factors: biological structures (skin, rinds, shells), nutrient availability, pH and presence of organic acids, availability of water, redox potential (aerobic or anaerobic environment), presence of antimicrobial compounds (smoke, enzymes)
  • Extrinsic factors: storage temperature, relative humidity of environment, gas composition of environment (N2 and O2 are inhibitory)
133
Q

Biochemistry of Fermentations

A
  • Incomplete oxidation of carbohydrates and related chemical compounds under aerobic or aneraerobic conditions
  • All process which depends upon the activity of microorganisms to break down carbohydrate substrates
  • End products are: lactic acid, alcohol, acetic acid, carbon dioxide
  • Some sugars are naturally present, but other sugars need to be released through enzymatic action of amylases before they can be available to microorganisms as substrates
  • Flavour/texture of fermented foods rely on proteolytic and/or lipolytic enzyme activity of microorganisms
134
Q

Uses of Fermentation

A
  • Dairy Products including milk, yogurt, buttermilk, sour cream (lactic acid)
  • Bread (yeast)
  • Pickling (vinegar solution containing spices, fermented in brine)
  • Processed Meat (lactic acid)
  • Vinegar (vinegar or acetic acid from sugar or yeast)
  • Wine Making (yeast)
  • Brewing
135
Q

Risk

A
  • Voluntary risk: do something even though it may cause harm
  • Involuntary risk: do something because you are not aware of the potential risk
  • Acceptable risk: there is risk involved, but that risk isn’t enough to stop you from doing it or won’t cause that much harm
136
Q

Food Preservation

A
  • Heat: most microbes are killed at 180F, and their spores are killed at 250F
  • Cold: microbial growth slows at temperatures below 50F, foods below 14F usually don’t have free water, so microbes perish from low water activity
  • Drying: reduces water activity, microbes are 80% water, so drying or dehydrating food does the same to the organisms within that food
  • Acid: as pH lowers, the heat required for sterilization lowers
  • Sugar and salt: chemical form of controlling microbes,adding sugar and salt removes water from microbes and the water moves into the food via osmosis
  • Smoke: chemical means of controlling microbes, contains formaldehyde and other preservatives, heat in smoke reduces microbial concentrations and somewhat dries the food
  • Atmosphere: changing storage atmosphere reduces food deterioration, growth of aerobes is slowed by creating an anaerobic environment, adding CO2 and N also slows deterioration
  • Chemicals: chemical additives retard the growth of microorganisms, modify enzyme activity, inhibit chemical reactions, or modify structure of foods
  • Radiation: can destroy microbes and deactivate enzymes
137
Q

Tetrodotoxin

A

Neurotoxin in poisonous pufferfish which has been known to cause milk tingling at low levels of exposure

138
Q

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

A

Must limit phenylalanine consumption

139
Q

Hazards in Food

A
  • Biological: infectious or toxigenic bacteria, viruses, moulds, parasites, fungi, toxic plants and fish
  • Physical: cut to the mouth, broken teeth, choking, or perforation to the GI
  • Chemical: encompasses a wide range of chemical compounds, can be acute (characteristics disease manifestations) or chronic (lose doses can be dementiral to long term health)
140
Q

Food Allergies

A
  • Elect an immune reaction because the body produces antibodies in response of a foreign substance
  • Involved activity of immunoglobulin E which sets off the immune response
  • Can be manifested as hives, eczema, asthma, abdominal pain, anaphylactic shock
141
Q

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP)

A
  • It is a management system in which food safety is addressed through the analysis and control of biological, chemical and physical hazards from raw material production, procurement and handling, to manufacturing, distribution and consumption of the finished product
  • Development and implementation are becoming widespread throughout the food industry in order to enhance food safety and due to regulatory requirements
  • HACCP steps:
    1. Analyze hazards
    2. Identify critical control points (points in a food’s production at which the potential hazard can be controlled or eliminated, e.g. cooking, cooling, packaging, metal detection)
    3. Establish preventative measures with critical limits for each control point
    4. Establish procedures to monitor the critical control points
    5. Establish corrective actions to be taken when monitoring shows that a critical limit has not been met
    6. Establish procedures to verify that the system is working properly
    7. Establish effective recordkeeping to document the HACCP system
  • Advantages of the HACCP system
    ○ Focus on identifying and preventing hazards from contaminating food
    ○ Based on sound science
    ○ Permits more efficient and effective government oversight, primarily because the recordkeeping allows investigators to see how well a firm is complying with food safety laws over a period of time rather than how well it is going on any given day
    ○ Places responsibility for ensuring food safety appropriately on the food manufacturer or distributor
    Helps food companies compete more effectively in the world market
142
Q

Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP)

A
  • Prerequisites to effective implementation of HACCP principles
  • Focus on operational conditions within processing facilities rather than process flow for a specific product
  • Some aspects include: premises, transportation and storage, equipment, personnel, sanitation and pest control programs
143
Q

Cross Contamination

A

The transportation of harmful substances by 1) hands that touch raw food then though foods that will not be cooked, 2) surfaces like cutting boards or cleaning cloths that touch raw foods, have not been sanitized properly and then touch ready to eat foods, 3) raw or contamination food that touch or drip fluids on cooked or ready to eat foods

144
Q

Microorganisms

A
  • Viruses: not able to reproduce outside of a living cell, some are extremely resistant to heat and cold, food is transportation device to get from one host to another
  • Parasites: need to live on or in a host to survive (for ex. Trichinella spiral affects pork)
  • Fungi: found in air, soil, plants, animals, water and some food, includes moulds and yeasts
  • Bacteria: biggest threat, single celled organisms that can grow quickly at favourable temperatures, some are not infectious on their own, but when they multiply in potentially hazardous foods, they eject toxins that poison humans when consumed
145
Q

Factors Affecting Microbial Growth

A
  • pH: microorganisms can not grow at levels below pH 4.00
  • Oxygen: aerobic organisms require air for growth and will not reproduce without oxygen - vacuum sealing helps with this
  • Moisture Availability: organisms need free moisture to grow, drying foods helps, measure percent of relative humidity (1.0 = 100% humidity), bacteria do not grow at an Aw less than 0.85 and mould doesn’t grow less than 0.65
  • Nutrient Availability: most foods contain adequate nutrients to support the growth of microorganisms (esp. foods that contain carbs and protein)
  • Storage Temperature: differ depending on the microorganism
  • Lag Time, Generation Time and Numbers: amount of time for organisms to reach the log-growth phase = lag time, time to double the population time = generation time
146
Q

Pasteruization

A

Heating to a specific temperature for a specific time to kill the most heat resistant vegetative pathogen (doesn’t kill spores, why these products have to be refrigerated)

147
Q

Sterilization

A

Heating to a specific temperature for a specific time to kill the most heat resistant spore forming organism

148
Q

Materials Handelling

A
  • Harvesting, refrigerating, conveying, transportation

- Sanitary conditions must be maintained, losses minimized, and bacterial growth minimized

149
Q

Cleaning

A
  • Brushes, high velocity air, steam, water, vacuum, magnets, microfiltration and mechanical separation are used to clean food and clean equipment
150
Q

Seperation

A
  • Cream: centrifuge spins and separate based on density which separates cream and skim milk
  • Clarification: centrifuge spins based on state, which is how sediment and whey is extracted
  • Membrane Processes: reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration and microfiltration use membrane with varying pore size to separate based on size and shape
151
Q

Size Reduction

A
  • High shear forces, graters, cutters, slicers

- Size increase by aggregation, agglomeration or gelation

152
Q

Pumping/Fluid Flowing

A
  • Achieved by gravity flow or use of pumps
  • Gravity Flow: the flow is laminar meaning it is transferred from the fluid to the wall between adjacent layers and do not mix often
  • Pumps: centrifugal or positive
153
Q

Mixing

A
  • Main purpose is heat transfer or ingredient incorporation, efficiency of mixing depends on design, diameter, and speed of impeller
  • Achieved by putting agitation devices in a tank
  • Different mixing configurations will be used to achieve different purposes
154
Q

Heat Exchanger

A
  • Either transferred in, or removed
  • Plate Heat Exchange: pass fluid over a plate where a heating/cooling medium is being passed up or down on the other side of the plate, the thin film makes for rapid heat transfer and is most efficient way to heat fluid of low viscosity
  • Tubular Heat Exchange: composed of a tube within a tube in which product and heating and cooling medium are flowing in countercurrent direction, applied to fluids of higher viscosities
  • Swept Surface Heat Exchanger: has blades that scrape the surface of the heat exchanger and bring new product continuously to viscosity (ex. ice cream freezer)
155
Q

Conduction

A

Transfer from molecule to molecule through the material

156
Q

Radiation

A

Transfer from electromagnetic radiation of a body due to the vibration of its molecules

157
Q

Convection

A

Transfer through the movement of mass

158
Q

Concentration

A
  • Reverse Osmosis: fluid is passed through a semipermeable membrane with a small pore that emits only the transfer of water, high pressure is applied, concentrate fluid is retained until no more water is able to be removed
  • Evaporation: heating the fluid in a vessel under a vacuum to cause a change of water from liquid to gas and then recover water through a condenser
159
Q

Drying

A
  • Sun or Tray Drying: are already solid, exposed to sun or placed in trays and dried in a current of warm or hot air (how raisins are made from grapes)
  • Freeze Dried: products that are are heat sensitive, moisture is removed without a state change - sublimation (coffee and some fruits)
  • Spray Drying: used to atomize the fluid into heated air
  • Roller Drying: where the product is allowed to flow over a hot rotating drum and then the dried product was scrapped off
160
Q

Forming

A
  • Compacting, pressure extrusion, told, powder, and binding agents, heat and pressure, and extrusion cooking
161
Q

Packaging

A
  • Shipping, dispensing, improving the usefulness of the product, and protecting from unwanted organisms, packaged in many ways and machines that automatically package foods at high speeds
  • Process is mainly stepwise and automated
162
Q

Controlling

A
  • Controlling and measuring values, thermometers, scales, thermostats and other instruments to measure pressure, temp, fluid flow, acidity, weight viscosity, humidity, time, specific gravity
163
Q

New Processes

A
  • Ohmic Heating: alternating current to rapidly increase the temp of a product which destroys microorganisms but keeps the food intact
  • Supercritical Fluid Extraction: uses a gas such as carbon dioxide at high pressure to extract or separate food components
  • High Hydrostatic Pressure: used in food to inactivate microorganisms and some enzymes
164
Q

Commerical Sterility

A

Where all the pathogenic microorganisms that might grow in specific product and extension of shelf life by decreasing number of spoilage organisms present, is not sterile and is subject to spoilage

165
Q

Blanching

A

Mild heat treatment, generally applied to fruits and vegetables to inactive enzymes that might decrease product quality, might destroy some microorganisms and lead to increased product shelf life
- Primary objective is enzyme inactivation

166
Q

Cool Storage

A

16 to -2C
- Gentlest technique that affects the taste, texture, nutritive value, colour the least but is a short time preservation method

167
Q

Refrigeration

A
  1. 5 to 7C
    - Will not kill microorganisms or inactivate enzymes, only slow thier deterioration effects
    - Food can experience: chill injury, flavour absorption, loss of firmness, colour, flavour, and sugar
168
Q

Frozen

A

0 to -18C

- Will not destroy microorganisms, but will slow or inhibit microorganisms

169
Q

Factors Affecting Dehydration (4)

A
  • Surface Area: greater the SA, the faster it dries
  • Temperature: greater temp difference between product and drying medium increases the rate of drying
  • Humidity: higher the humidity, the slower the drying will be
  • Atmospheric Pressure: controls the temp at which water boils, lower the pressure the lower the temp is required to remove water
170
Q

Drying Curve

A
  • When foods are dehydrated, they lose water at different rates, quickly at first, then more slowly as more water is lost
171
Q

Solute Concentration

A

Foods high in sugar and other solutes dry more slowly as they dry, the concentration of the solute increases

172
Q

Binding of Water

A

Some water is held by the absorption to food solids, water in colloid dels is more difficult to removes, the most difficult to remove is in the form of hydrates like glucose monohydrate or inorganic salt hydrates

173
Q

Chemical Changes

A
  • Caramelization: of sugars occurs if the temp is high enough
  • Enzymatic Browning: caused by enzyme and can be prevented by inactivation those enzymes before drying
  • Loss of Ease of Hydration: physical changes, denatured protein, loss of sugars and salts during dehydration make the reabsorption of water by the dried products less than equal to the original
  • Loss of Flavour: usually added back after dehydration
174
Q

Drying Method (4)

A
  • Air Convection: air circulated around an insulated enclosure and a source of heating, the food is supported within the enclosure and the movement of air is controlled by fans, dried product is collected
  • Drum: food is applied in a thin layered on a rotating drum and as it moved the food is dried and once it is completely dried it reaches a scrapped where it is collected
  • Vacuum
  • Freeze Drying
175
Q

Why are foods packaged?

A
  • Containment
  • Protection
  • Convenience
  • Communication
176
Q

Types of Packaging Materials

A
  • Metal: major disadvantage is corrosion from exposure to acidic foods, has been alleviated by coatings on the inner can to shield, also not suitable for microwave heating
  • Glass: advantage of transparency, inert chemical interactions therefore compatible with any food product, potential for breakage, biggest disadvantage is the heavyweight nature which increases transportation costs
  • Paper and Fibreboard: commonly used for outer wrappings, boxes and bags, when used as primary containers they must be ‘food grade’ = non toxic and non reactive, good printing properties, recyclable
  • Plastics: flexible or semi rigid, versatile, disadvantages include gas permeability, possible migration of plastics into foods, temperature exposure limits
177
Q

Environmental Impact of Food Packaging Disposal

A
  • National Packaging Protocol is a Canadian government initiative to promote waste reduction through source reduction, reuse, and recycling programs, and promote development of improved management strategies to reduce disposal of packaging or incineration
  • Balance between environmental responsibility and convenience
  • Customers concerns motivate companies to re-evaluate thier approaches to waste management
178
Q

Environmental Controls in Food Safety

A

If you control conditions like temperature and moisture, you can inhibit the growth of potentially harmful microorganisms

179
Q

Trends Emerging in Food Packaging

A
  • Has become more about convenience
  • Packaging for ready to eat or microwavable meals
  • Communication is focus, identity of the product
180
Q

Heat Transfer and Flow

A
  • Includes canning, pasteurization, and evaporation

- Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only be converted into other forms of energy

181
Q

Energy Conversion

A
  • Microwave heating: converting radiant energy from the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum to kinetic energy in water molecules
  • Dipole nature of water enable the molecule to absorb microwave energy
  • When food is placed between 2 electrodes, an electric field is created when the microwave is in operation
  • Polar molecule align themselves in an electric field, when the polarity is alternated, water molecules spins, causing friction which is manifested in heat
182
Q

Cooling

A
  • Refrigerators are kept cold by keeping refrigerant inside coils inside the walls of the unit
  • Has a low boiling point, so it picks up heat from the storage components when it evaporates inside the coils
  • Absorbed heat is released at the back where the refrigerant gas is condensed back to a liquid using a built in condensor
183
Q

What factors influence heat transfer?

A
  • Size of food/depth of container
  • Difference in temp between the heat source and food
  • Physical properties of the food and container
  • Surface area
  • Mechanism of heat transfer (convestion currents are neaturally created in less viscous foods because heated particles ten to rise towards the top, while colder particle fall down)
  • Use of dry heat or moist heat (food cooks faster with liquid or steam, hence why moist heat are quicker)
184
Q

Phase Transitions

A
  • A change when a chemical compound changes phases without changing its chemical properties
  • Steam is often used as a source of heat for various food processing unit operations
  • Evaporation is a means of removing water by converting liquids to gas
  • Freeze drying removes water by converting frozen water to gas (sublimation)
185
Q

Sensible Heat

A

Amount of heat which must be added or removed to cause a change in temperature of a substance

  • Temp changes but there is no phase change
  • No phase change
186
Q

Latent Heat

A

Amount of heat which is added/removed to effect a change in phase

  • Added until all of a substance is converted to a different phase
  • Occurrence of a phase change
  • Constant temperature until all of the substance has been converted
187
Q

Solutes and Pressure Upon Phase Change

A
  • Water contains impurities which is why it boils and freezes at different temperatures
  • Boiling point decreases as pressure decreases
  • Boiling water at low altitudes are hotter than at high altitudes
188
Q

Viscosity

A
  • The resistance of flow, which can be attributed to internal friction when substances are in flow
  • Highly viscous substance have a high degree of internal friction which inhibits flow
  • Highly viscous = slow moving
189
Q

Stress

A

A force applied over a given unit area

190
Q

Sheer Strain

A

A change in shape of a solid or liquid in motion

- Can be thought about as layers on a substances sliding over one another as a result of an applied force

191
Q

Newtonian Fluids

A

Shear forces are directly proportional to the applied stress

  • Water, milk, syrups, brines, pure oils, alcohols, and gases flow readily when any stress is applied
  • Shear stress does not affect the viscosity of Newtonian fluids because viscosity remains constant
192
Q

Non-Newtonian Fluids

A

Fluids do not readily flow unless a particular amount of force has been applied

  • Fluids act like plastic materials
  • Do not undergo permanent deformation, unless a certain yield stress has been exceeded
  • Most foods exhibit non-newtonians behaviour
  • Ex. salad dressing, ketchup
193
Q

Rheology (3)

A

The study of relationships between force and deformation and their interrelationships with time

  • Elasticity: perfectly elastic bodies will deform when a stress is applied but will instantaneously return back to thier original conformation when the stress is removed, no foods experience this, but can experience retarded elastic behaviours where it returns to approximately the same conformation over time
  • Viscoelasticity: exhibits properties associated with both elastic and viscous material, under similar stresses these bodies will exhibit flow behaviour, higher level of applied stress causes the bodies to behave in an elastic manner, ex bread dough
  • Pseudoplastic and Dilatant Flow: when pseudoplastic materials are stirred, the viscosity decreases and the material exhibits fluid flow behaviour, dilatant flow behaviour objects will gradually increases thier viscosity as rates of sheer increase, heated starch solutions exhibit dilatant flow
194
Q

Mass Transfer

A
  • Involves the movement of mass from one place to another
  • Usually the movement of water by means of evaporation, absorption, drying
  • This can be used for cooking dehydrated foods (boiling rice in water), dehydrating foods to increase shelf-life
195
Q

Identify toxins within foods

A
  • In food there can be traces of synthetic toxins, such as drug residues, hormones, pesticides, or environmental pollutants (e.g., mercury, PCBs, lead)
  • Typically enter the food supply as a result of human intervention
  • Some endogenous toxins are not harmful since they are found in very low concentrations
  • Other endogenous toxins may cause serious illness at low doses (i.e., cyanide compounds, some poisonous mushrooms)
  • Long-term exposure to low dosages of endogenous toxins has been associated with increased risk of degenerative diseases or cancers
  • The other class of naturally-occurring toxins include compounds which are not produced by the food itself, but are the result of natural phenomena (i.e., marine toxins contaminating fish) or microbial contamination of food
196
Q

Genetic Engineering

A

Used to improve the yields and efficiency of traditional fermentation products and to convert unused raw material into useful products
- Recombining genes to make recombinant DNA

197
Q

Chymosin (Rennin)

A
  • Used in cheese manufacturing
  • Extracted from the stomach of calves and the demand has far exceed the supply
  • Scientists inserted the gene for producing rennin into microorganisms
  • Became a genetical engineering product approved for use in foods
198
Q

Bovine Somatotropin (BST)

A
  • BST or growth hormone in cattle is produced by genetically engineering microorganisms
  • Increases milk production by 10-25%, whereas feed intake increases by only 6% (increasing efficiency)
199
Q

Tomatoes

A
  • Flavour Save tomatoes produced by Nalgene contained and antisense gene for the enzyme that elongates the softening of the tomatoes
  • Allowing longer shelf life
200
Q

Cloning

A
  • Every cell contains all the genetic information to produce a complete new organism identical to the original
  • Currently being used on plants, trying to be applied successfully to animals
201
Q

Evaluate the risks associated with GMOs:

A
  • Could provide plentiful food
  • Possible safety issue and environmental impact
  • Possible increased labelling of GMO foods, ban of these foods and more stringent testing of these products before they go on the market
  • FDA stresses that GMO’s and normal food all have to meet the same set of standards, so they should be equally as safe
  • Technology is too difficult to understand, so the public fear what they don’t understand
202
Q

The four P’s of marketing

A

Product
Price
Promotion
Place (distribution)

203
Q

Food Apperance

A

A factor which is tied to consumers expectations of how products should look and consumer tolerance for various degree of devotions for expectations

204
Q

Colour Perception

A
  • Can be altered by ambient perception of light, physiological abnormalities
  • Food scientists recognize the variability of colour perception, therefore attempts have been made to standardize colour measurement
205
Q

Pigments in Food

A
  • Create colour in food by affecting the transmission or reflection of light
  • May be endogenous, synthetic or arise as a result of chemical changes produced during food processing
206
Q

Food Texture

A
  • Human perception of food texture is based on tactile sensory stimuli arising from chewing, swallowing and manipulation
  • High dependence on microstructure of foods and rheological properties
207
Q

Food Flavour

A
  • Perception is a complex olfactory response involving the sense of taste and smell
  • Response arise from detection of flavour compounds by receptors on the tongue and volatile chemicals by the nose
  • Food texture, colour and appearance influence perception of flavour
  • Perception can be influenced by cultural factors, psychological conditioning, or biological variability (some can detect certain flavours at lower thresholds)
208
Q

Methods of Sensory Analysis (2)

A

1) Difference Testing: examining the sensory info of a food before and after the formula has changed, may not tell the magnitude of the difference between the two products, nor if one is preferred over the other, if there is a difference, scaling methods can be used to determine the magnitude of the difference with respect to specific characteristics
2) Preference/Acceptance Testing: tests your product against another company’s and sees demographically which one is preferred, not designed to indicate whether a difference exists
- Sensory evaluation is done for the purpose of quality control
- Sensory technologists integrate information from a variety of sensory tests to develop descriptive sensory profiles which sensory scientists characterize particular sensory attributes by using descriptive words and number scales to express the intensity, duration and order of appearance or specific sensory attributes
- Colour, appearance and odour can be examined by instrumental means, and humans provide a more complex and integrated picture of sensory characteristics
- Human testers can be trained to look for certain characteristics or untrained
- Care must be taken to eliminate bias
- Most tests are based on statistical principles so sensory scientists must be well-versed in statistical methods

FOOD2010 Final Exam (1 decks)

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