Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
Name the 6 different types of acids:
A
- Insoluble Ca2+ Oxalates
- Soluble Ca2+ Oxalates
- Isocupressic acid
- Quinones
- Tannic Acid
- Triterpene acid
2
Q
Name some insoluble Ca2+ oxalate plants:
A
A. Arum Family
- Chinese Evergreen, 2. Elephant’s ear, 3. Flamingo plant, 4. Jack in the pulpit, 5. Cuckoo plant, 6. Caladium, 7. Dumcane, 8. Devil’s Ivy, 9. Swiss cheese plant, 10. Philodendron, 11. Peace lily , 12. Skink cabbage, 13. Arrowhead vine, 14. Calla lily
B. Aralia Family
- Umbrella tree
C. Palm Family
- Fishtail palm
3
Q
Dumcane causes _________ release.
A
Histamine
4
Q
Which parts of insoluble Ca2+ oxalate plants are toxic?
A
All parts!
5
Q
Name some soluble Ca2+ oxalate plants:
A
- Halogeton, 2. Greasewood, 3. Pigweed
6
Q
Soluble Ca2+ oxalate plants primarily cause what?
A
Hypocalcemia and kidney damage.
7
Q
Name a isocupressic acid plant?
A
Ponderosa pine
8
Q
Isocupressic acid mainly causes what?
A
Vasoconstriction and abortion.
9
Q
Name a quinone plant.
A
St. John’s Wort.
10
Q
Quinones primarily cause what?
A
Primary photosensitization
11
Q
Name a tannic acid plant.
A
Oak tree
12
Q
Tannic acid plants mainly cause what?
A
Tissue damage including GI lesions and kidney damage.
13
Q
Name some triterpene acid plants:
A
- Lantana and 2. Yellow Sage
14
Q
Triterpene acid plants mainly cause what?
A
Liver damange and hepatogenic photosensitization.
15
Q
Name the 13 different types of alkaloids:
A
- Colchicine
- Diterpene
- Ergot
- Indolizidine
- Lycorine
- Muscarine
- Piperidine
- Pyridine
- Pyrrolizidine
- Solanine/Solanidine
- Taxine
- Tropane (Atropine, Hyoscine, Hyoscyamine)
- Xanthine (Caffeine, Theobromine, Theophylline)
**Basically ANYTHING that ends in -ine, except ergot!!**
16
Q
Name some colchicine plants:
A
- Autumn crocus
- Glory lily
- Meadow Saffron
17
Q
Colchicine plants mainly cause what?
A
They are antimitotic by binding to tubulin and inhibiting spindle formation during cell division.
Rapidly dividing cells are the most sensitive.
Whole body effected.
18
Q
Name some Diterpene plants:
A
- Buttercup
- Larkspur
- Monkshood, Aconite
19
Q
Diterpene plants mainly cause what?
A
Competitive blockade of nicotinic receptors at the muscle endplate similar to curare.
20
Q
What would you use to treat Diterpene toxicity?
A
Physostigmine or Neostigmine
21
Q
Monkshood and Aconite cause mostly what?
A
Cardiotoxicity
22
Q
What is an example of an ergot plant?
A
Ergot is not a plant it’s a fungus and it typically infects plants like rye, and other cereals.
23
Q
Ergot typically causes what signs?
A
Vasoconstriction, and gangrene
Uterine contractions (abortion)
Acute CNS signs
Chronic signs are more common– Hoof and hair abnormalities.
24
Q
Name some Indolizidine plants:
A
- Locoweeds
25
Indolizidine typically cause what signs?
They inhibit lysosomal enzymes essential for formation of glycoproteins.
Also inhibit neurotoxic alkaloids.
**Neurotoxic signs**
26
Name an example of a Lycorine plant:
Amaryllis
27
Lycorine plants typically cause what?
**Vomiting and diarrhea**
and other severe GI signs
28
Which part of a Lycorine plant is the most toxic?
The bulb
29
Name a Muscarine plant:
Poisonous mushroom
30
What do Muscarine plants cause?
CNS stimulation
31
What are some examples of Piperidine plants:
1. Hemlock
2. Lupinus
3. Tobacco
32
What are some examples of Piperidine plant signs?
NM stimulation
NM blockage
**Mainly ataxia**
Birth defects--skeletal malformations and cleft palates
33
What are the Pyridine plants:
Nightshade family (nicotine and lobaline)
34
What do Pyridine plants cause?
They **act on nicotinic receptors at autonomic ganglia**, NM junctions and CNS.
Rapid onset of clinical signs- _DEATH~from respiratory failure._
35
What are some examples of Pyrrolizidine plants:
Senecio
36
What are the effects of Pyrrolizidine?
Hepatotoxicity
37
Name some Solanine/Solanidine plants:
Black nightshade
38
What are the effects of Solanine/Solanidine plants?
GI, CNS, Respiratory and Cardiac signs
39
Name some Taxine plants:
Japanese Yew\*
[has been asked on previous exams]
40
What are the effects of Taxine plants?
Cardiotoxic and GI signs
41
Name some Tropane (Atropine, Hyoscine, Hyoscyamine) plants:
1. Jimsonweed
2. Devil's trumpet
3. Angel's trumpet
42
Name some Xanthine (Caffeine, Theophylline, Theobromine) plants:
1. Cocoa
2. Coffee arabica
43
What are the effects of Xanthine plants?
Blocking adenosine receptors
## Footnote
**Inhibiting phosphodiesterase**
*Tachycardia and hypotension, salivation, V/D, colic, CNS stimulation (seizures), muscle tremors and urination.*
44
Name the 13 different types of glycosides:
1. Anthraquinone
2. Calcinogenic (Vit D Analogs)
3. Carboxyatractyloside (sulfated glycosides)
4. Cardiac glycosides
5. Coumarin
6. Cyanogenic
7. Cycasin
8. Glucosinolate (Thiocyanate)
9. Nitropropanol
10. Phytoestrogens
11. Protoanemonin
12. Ptaquiloside
13. Steroidal Saponins
45
Name a type of Anthraquinone plant:
**Coffee weed, senna**
Aloe
46
What are the effects of Anthraquinone plants?
Skeletal and cardiac muscle degeneration
Severe diarrhea
47
Name some Calcinogenic (Vitamin D Analog) plants:
Day Blooming Jessamine
48
What are the effects of Calcinogenic plants?
Hypercalcemia
49
Name some Carboxyatractyloside plants:
**Cocklebur**
50
What are the effects of Carboxyatractylosides?
Hepatotoxicity
51
Name some cardiac glycosides:
1. Foxglove
2. **Oleander**
3. Milkweed
4. Lily of the valley
5. Christmas kallanchoe
52
What are the effects of cardiac glycosides?
Cardiotoxicity-**-they inhibit Na+/K+ ATPase**
Severe GI irritation
53
What are some Coumarin plants?
**Sweet clover**
54
What are the effects of Coumarin plants?
Hemorrhage
55
What are some cyanogenic plants?
Wild cherries
56
What are the effects of cyanogenic plants?
Stressed or damaged plants release HCN.
## Footnote
**Causes histotoxic anoxia (acute)**
**Neuronal degeneration (chronic)**
57
Name some cycasin plants:
1. Cycad palm
2. **Sago palm**
58
What are the effects of cycasin plants?
GI irritation and liver damage.
59
Cycad palms have how many toxins, and what does each one cause?
3 total:
1. Cycasin: GI irritation, liver damage
2. BMAA- neurotoxic
3. Unk- axonal degeneration in the CNS
60
Name some Glucosinolate (thiocyanate) plants:
1. Brassica
2. Soybean
3. Flax
61
What are the effects of glucosinolate plants?
SCN- **antithyroid**
62
Name some nitropropanol plants:
Milkvetch
63
What are the effects of nitropropanol plants?
**Inhibits enzymes of the Citric Acid cycle**
64
Name some Phytoestrogen plants:
Alfalfa
65
What are the effects of phytoestrogen plants?
Infertility
66
Name some Protoanemonin plants:
Buttercup family
67
What are the effects of Protoanemonin plants?
Severe irritation of the GI tract
and dermatitis.
68
Name some Ptaquiloside plants:
Bracken fern
69
What are the effects of some ptaquiloside plants?
**Aplastic anemia**- in cattle and sheep
**Neoplasia of the urinary tract causing enzootic bovine hematuria.**
Tumors of the upper GI tract and retinal degeneration in sheep (**bright blindness**)
70
Name some Steroidal Saponins:
Agave
71
What are the effects of Steroidal Saponins?
Liver damage and
## Footnote
**hepatogenic photosensitization**
72
Name the 9 different types of proteins and amino acids:
1. Dimethyl Sulfide
2. Propyl Disulfide
3. Diterpene Esters
4. Grayanotoxins
5. Lectins (Phytotoxins, toxalbumins)
6. Meliatoxins
7. Tetradymol
8. Thiaminase
9. Titerpenoid Saponins
73
Name the Dimethyl Disulfide plants:
Mustards
74
What are the effects of Dimethyl Disulfide plants?
**Heinz bodies** and **Hemolytic anemia**
75
Name some Propyl Disulfide plants:
1. **Onion**
2. **Garlic**
3. Shallots
4. Chives
5. Leak
6. **Allium**
76
What are the effects of propyl disulfide plants?
**Heinz bodies** and **hemolytic anemia**
77
Name some Diterpene esters:
1. Cat tail
2. Croton
3. Poinsettia
4. Manchineel
5. Wild physicnut
78
What are the effects of Diterpene Esters?
Irritation and blistering of the skin and GI mucosa.
**Especially horses**
Enzyme dysfunction--direct cell injury
79
Name some Lectins (Phytotoxins) plants:
1. **Castor bean**
2. Precatory bean
3. Beans (soybeans, kidney, pinto, navy)
80
What are the effects of Lectin plants?
Hemorrhagic gastroenteritis
One castor bean can kill a small child
81
Name some Meliatoxin plants:
Chinaberry
82
What are the effects of Meliatoxin plants?
Enterotoxicity
Neurotoxicity
83
Name some Tetradymol plants:
Horsebrush
Sagebrush
84
What are the effects of Tetradymol plants?
**Hepatogenic photosensitization**- SHEEP
85
Name some Thiaminase plants:
1. Horsetail
2. Brackenfern
86
What are the effects of Thiaminase plants?
Signs of **thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency**--neurotoxic.
Commonly affects **piglets**.
87
Name some Titerpenoid Saponin plants:
1. Alfalfa
2. Holly
3. English ivy
4. Pokeweed
88
What are the effects of Titerpenoid Saponin plants?
**Direct irritation** of the GI mucosa.
89
Name the different types of unclassified toxins:
1. Red clover
2. Avocado
3. Black walnut
4. Forage-induced photosensitzation
5. Grapes and Raisins
6. Lily
7. Pigweed
8. Red Maple
9. Senna
10. Yellow Starthistle
11. Macademia nuts
90
What is the MOA of Red Clover?
Hepatotoxicity and **2ndary photosensitization**
Mainly effects **horses.**
91
Avocado can cause sudden death in these species:
Goats, horses, rabbits and caged birds.
92
Black walnut have been known to cause what?
**Laminitis** in horses
93
What 2 plants can cause forage induced photosensitization?
Moldy alfalfa and red clover
~either primary or secondary photosensitization
94
Grapes and raisens cause what?
Renal failure in dogs
95
Lillies (like Easter lily and Day lily) cause what?
Nephrotoxicity in cats
96
Pigweed contains 3 toxins which are:
1. **Nitrate**- causes ***methemoglobinemia***
2. **Oxalate**- ***hypocalcemia*** and ***kidney damage***
3. **Unknown**- ***Renal tubular nephrosis*** in ruminats, pigs and horses
97
Dried Red Maple leaves cause what?
Hemolytic anemia
Hemoglobinemia
and Heinz bodies
in **horses.**
98
Coffee senna causes what?
An unknown myotoxin causes skeletal muscle myopathy and cardiomyopathy.
Anthraquinone glycoside acts as a cathartic, can cause V/D.
Diarrhea
99
Yellow Starthistle causes what?
**Nigropalladial encephalomalacia (ENE)**
**Chewing disease**
100
Macademia nuts cause what?
**Hind limb weakness**
Depression
**Ataxia**
Tremors
**Hyperthermia**
Lameness
Recumbency
V/D
**Colic**
Pale mm
**Full recovery within 2 days**
*Signs are seen in DOGS*
101
Name some Resins or Resinoids:
1. Milkweeds
2. Marijuana
3. Chinaberry
102
Resins or resinoids cause what?
Irritation of the nervous or muscle tissue
103
Name a Gossypol plant:
Cottonseed
104
What are the effects of Gossypol plants?
Cardiotoxicity and secondary liver damage
Reduces male fertility by **destroying seminiforous tubules.**
105
What are some minerals we should be concerned with that cause toxicity?
1. Molybdenum
2. Copper
3. Selenium
4. Nitrate
106
I say **Halogeten** you say....
**Soluble oxalate**, causes hypocalcemia
107
I say **Oak tree** you say....
**Tannic acid,** causes tissue damage.
108
I say **Ponderosa Pine** you say....
**Isocupressic acid**, causes vasoconstriction and abortion.
109
I say ***Dumcane*** you say...
**Insoluble oxalate**, causes histamine release
110
I say **Yellow Sage** you say....
**Triterpene acid**, hepatogenic photosensitization
111
I say **St. John's Wort** you say...
**Quinones**, Primary photosensitzation.
112
I say **Locoweeds** you say...
**Indolizidine**, neuro signs.
113
I say **Japanese Yew,** you say....
**Taxine**
114
I say **Nightshade family** you say...
**Pyridine**, act on nicotinic receptors in the autonomic ganglia.
115
I say **Senecio** you say....
**Pyrrolizidine,** hepatotoxicity
116
I say **tobacco** you say...
**Piperidine**
117
I say **poisonous mushroom** you say...
**Muscarine**
118
I say **Amaryllis family** you say...
**Lycorine**
119
I say **buttercup**, you say...
**Diterpene**
120
I say **cocoa** you say...
**Xanthine,** inhibits phosphodiesterase
121
I say **Devil's trumpet** you say...
**Tropane**
122
I say **Monkshood** you say....
**Diterpene**
123
I say **Meadow Saffron** you say....
**Colchicine**
124
I say **black nightshade** you say...
**Solanine/Solanidine**
125
I say **Coffee weed** you say...
**Anthraquinone,**
126
I say **Buttercup family** you say....
**Protoanemonin**
127
I say **wild cherries** you say...
**Cyanogenic,** release of HCN
128
I say **agave** you say....
**Steroidal saponins**
129
I say **Milkvetch** you say...
**Nitropropanol,** inhibits the citric acid cycle.
130
I say **sweet clover** you say...
**Coumarin**
131
I say **Oleander** you say....
Cardiac glycoside
132
I say **sago palm** you say....
**Cycasin** (even though this is only 1 of 3 toxins, the other is BMAA and the other is unk)
133
I say **cocklebur** you say...
**Carboxyatractyloside**
134
I say **Day-Blooming Jessamine** you say...
**Calcinogenic**
135
I say **bracken fern** you say....
**Ptaquiloside**
136
I say **alfalfa** you say....
**Phytoestrogens**
137
I say **Brassica** you say...
**Glucosinolate**
138
I say **Castor bean** you say...
**Lectin (phytotoxin)**
139
I say **Holly** you say...
**Titerpenoid saponins**
140
I say **Horsebrush** you say...
**Tetradymol**
141
I say **Rhododendron** you say....
**Grayanotoxins**
142
I say **onion** you say...
**Propyl disulfide**, causes heinz bodies and hemolytic anemia.
143
I say **mustards** you say...
**Dimethyl Disulfide**, causes Heinz bodies and Hemolytic anemia.
144
I say **croton** you say...
**Diterpene esters** causes irritation to the skin and GI mucosa, specifically horses.
145
I say **Chinaberry** you say...
**Meliatoxin**
146
Ponderosa Pine/Isocupressic acid is an:
A. Acid
B. Alkaloid
C. Glycoside
D. Protein and amino acid
E. Unclassified Toxin
**Acid**
147
**Oleander** is an:
A. Acid.
B. Alkaloid
C. Glycoside
D. Protein and amino acid
E. Unclassified Toxin
**Glycoside**
148
**Pigweed** is an:
A. Acid
B. Alkaloid
C. Glycoside
D. Protein and amino acid
E. Unclassified toxin
**Unclassified toxin**
149
**Sweet clover/Coumarin** is an:
A. Acid
B. Alkaloid
C. Glycoside
D. Protein and amino acid
E. Unclassified toxin
**Glycoside**
150
**Ergot** is an:
A. Acid
B. Alkaloid
C. Glycoside
D. Protein and amino acid
E. Unclassified toxin
**Alkaloid**
151
**Castor bean/Lectin** is an:
A. Acid
B. Alkaloid
C. Glycoside
D. Protein and amino acid
E. Unclassified toxin
**Protein and amino acid**
152
Name some plants that accumulate Nitrate/Nitrite:
1. **Pigweed**
2. Oats
3. Alfalfa
4. Wheat
5. Sweet Clover
6. Corn
7. Johnson/Sudan Grass
153
What is the MOA of Nitrate/Nitrite?
Nitrate + reductase \>\> Nitrite \>\> Enters RBCs and converts ferrous to ferric
\>\> **Methemoglobinemia**\>\> Anoxia
154
What does Nitrate/Nitrite cause?
Vasodilation\>\>hypotension
**Abortion**
Tachypnea, restlessness, dyspnea, weakness, ataxia, recumbency, **cyanosis**, terminal **convulsions** and death.
155
How would you diagnose Nitrate/Nitrite poisoning?
Test the forage, hay or water.
Test brown blood for a ratio of blood: phosphate buffer 1:2
**Diphenylamine test**
*Post-Mortem test:* **Ocular fluid**
156
How would you treat Nitrate/Nitrite poisoning?
**Methylene Blue 1% slowly IV**
do *NOT* use in cats!!!
Activated charcoal, gastric lavage with cold water.
Antibiotics
Animals sadly usually die before treatment!!!
157
What is the most toxic portion of a Nitrate rich plant?
**Stalk**\>Leaves\>Seeds
158
T/F: Older mature plants are higher in Nitrate.
False, young plants usually are.
159
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ are the most susceptible to Nitrate
\_\_\_\_\_\_ are the most sensitive to Nitrite IV
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ are resistant to Nitrate.
Cattle most susceptible
Horses most sensitive
Pigs are resistant.
160
T/F: Young animals are the most sensitive to Nitrate/Nitrite poisoning.
True
161
T/F: Anemia and methemoglobinema increase the toxicity of Nitrate/Nitrite.
True
162
What plants tend to accumulate cyanide?
1. **Wild cherries**
2. Sudan grass, Johnson grass, sorghum
3. Lima bean and cassava roots (tapioca)
4. Apples, plums, apricots
163
What is the acute MOA of cyanide?
Blocks electron transport and **causes histotoxic anoxia** esp to the brain.
**Metabolic acidosis**
May **inhibit glycolysis and citric acid cycle.**
164
What is the chronic MOA of cyanide?
Neuronal degeneration and demyelination of SC and brain, **goitrogenic (disrupts the production of thyroid hormones).**
165
What are the **acute effects** of cyanide toxicity?
**Vasoconstriction** and irritation of the mucous membranes.
**Bright red mucous membranes**
Tachypnea, **gasping**, salivation, tremors, lacrimation, urination, defecation, colic, vomiting, clonic **convulsions**, death.
166
How do you diagnose cyanide toxicity?
The **smell of cyanide** in blood.
Preserve samples with **mercuric chloride in urine.**
**Lactic acidosis**\>\>increased anion gap.
**Sodium pricate test.**
Post-mortem can test brain and heart tissue.
167
What are the chronic effects of cyanide toxicity?
**Posterior paralysis**
Urinary incontinence
Constipation
Cystitis
**Goitrogenic (disrupts the production of thyroid hormones)**
168
How would you treat cyanide toxicosis?
**Sodium nitrite IV**\>\>this will lead to methemoglobinemia\>\> Binds cyanide + reactivates cytochrome oxidase.
So you are basically treating a toxin with another toxin!
**Sodium thiosulfate**
**Oxygen**
Vinegar + Cold Water slows microflora
Mineral oil (to act as a laxative)
169
Which animals are most susceptible to cyanide poisoning?
**Ruminants**
***(Cattle\>Sheep)***
170
T/F: The smell of cyanide resembles **bitter almond or ammonia.**
True
171
What is the most toxic part of a plant that accumulates cyanide?
**Seeds**\>Leaves\>Bark\>Stems\>Fruit
172
T/F: Older plants or those with less N or P may have deceased levels of glycosides.
False, Younger plants and those with increased levels of N or P will have inc. glycosides.
173
What are some plants that accumulate soluble oxalate?
1. Pigweed
2. Beets
3. Lamb's Quarters
4. Sorrel, Soursop
5. Rhubarb
6. Greasewood
174
Other than plants, what are some other places soluble oxalates may be found?
Household and industrial products
Fungi
Ethylene glycol
175
What is the MOA of soluble oxalate?
Combines with Ca2+ and forms insoluble Ca2+ oxalate.
Causes **hypocalcemia** and **tetany.**
This effects bone and milk production.
**Precipitates in the kidney tubules** and causes damage and necrosis.
176
What are the clinical signs of soluble oxalate toxicity?
Dull, Depressed, Twitching, Weak, **Head and neck pulled to one side**, Prostration, Coma, Death
Tachypnea, Blood tinged froth, Convulsions, Fatal renal tubular toxicosis--**oliguria**, depression, **hyperkalemia** and cardiac failure.
Chronic tubular nephrosis.
177
How do you diagnose soluble oxalate toxicity?
**Demonstrate Ca2+ oxalate (polarizing rosette)** in kidney tubules, kidney will be dark
red with a gray line.
**Hypocalcemia**
**Increased BUN** (azotemia)
178
How do you treat soluble oxalate toxicity?
**Treatment is of little value after clinical signs emerge.**
Activated charcoal and limewater.
**Ca2+ gluconate IV**- not curative.
Saline glucose (alkalosis and diuresis)
**Ca2+ supplement and high Ca2+ diet is protective.**
Supportive therapy for nephrosis.
179
Which species are most susceptible to soluble oxalate toxicosis?
**Ruminants (sheep and cattle)**
180
What is the most toxic part of the plant for those that accumulate soluble oxalate?
**Leaves**\>Seeds\>Stems
181
\_\_\_\_\_\_ reduces the rate of absorption of soluble oxalate.
Food
182
\_\_\_\_\_ decreases the toxicity of soluble oxalate.
Calcium
183
What is the MOA of Ammonia?
It is a **strong irritant** of the mucous membranes.
There is an increased chance of 2ndary resp infections.
**Lung congestion** due to increased permeability.
**Respiratory alkalosis** with compensatory metabolic acidosis.
May **inhibit the citric acid cycle.**
184
What are the clinical signs of ammonia toxicosis?
**Red mucous membranes**
Lacrimation
Nasal discharge
Coughing/sneezing/**dyspnea**
Decreased growth and egg production in birds
**Cyanosis**
CNS stimulation: **clonic convulsions**
185
How do you diagnose ammonia toxicitiy?
**Ammonia odor**
There is no chemical analysis for toxic gases
186
How do you treat ammonia toxicosis?
Removal of the source
**Proper ventilation**
Fresh air
Ointment for the eyes
Antibiotics
Diuretics
187
What is a common source of ammonia?
Decomposing manure in animal houses.
188
What animals are most susceptible to ammonia toxicosis?
Livestock
189
What is the MOA of Hydrogen Sufide?
In *lower concentrations*: **irritation of** ocular, **respiratory mucosa** and lungs.
In *large concentrations*: sudden collapse, **cyanosis**, dyspnea, **anoxic convulsions**, rapid death.
190
Describe hydrogen sulfide gas:
Colorless, flammable, and has a rotten egg odor.
191
How would you diagnose Hydrogen Sulfide gas toxicity?
Dark or **greenish-purple tissues**.
The **blood is dark** and may not clot.
**Sewage smell.**
GI contents may be black or dark and smell like sewage.
192
How would you treat Hydrogen sulfide toxicity?
Remove the souce.
**Give Sodium nitrate IV + Cyanide**\>\>*Methemoglobinemia*\>\>Binds Hydrogen Sulfide + Reactive Cytochrome Oxidase
Oxygen and Supportive Therapy
193
How is Hydrogen sulfide gas produced?
By decomposition of urine and feces.
194
T/F: Hydrogen sulfide is the most dangerous sewage gas.
True
195
T/F: Exposure to 4 ppm of Hydrogen Sulfide is quickly fatal.
False, exposure to 400 ppm is rapidly fatal.
196
T/F: Hydrogen sulfide reacts with silver, iron, lead and other metals to form dark/black compounds.
True
197
What is the MOA of Carbon Monoxide?
**Combines with Hb (hemoglobin)**\>\>CarboxyHb\>\>**Can't carry O2** + interferes with O2 release from Hb anoxemia\>\>Death.
198
What are the clinical signs of Carbon Monoxide poisoning?
Sudden death
**Hypoxia**
Ataxia
Dyspnea
Lethargy
Coma
**Bright red blood with healthy pink mucous membranes**
Chronically: Brain edema, hemorrhage, deafness
199
How do you diagnose Carbon Monoxide poisoning?
Measure [CO] in the air.
## Footnote
**Measure % COHb in whole blood (refridgerate)!!!**
200
What are the characteristics of Carbon Monixide?
Colorless and Odorless
201
How would you treat Carbon Monixide poisoning?
O2 or 5% CO2 in O2 (to displace CO from Hb)
Blood transfusion
202
What is the MOA of Nitrogen Oxide?
Increased chance of 2ndary respiratory infections.
**Irritation of the mucous membranes (nitric acid)**.
May cross respiratory mucousa and cause cellular damage.
Lung damage.
Death by **anoxemia**.
203
What are the clinical signs of Nitrogen Oxide toxicosis?
**Pulmonary edema**
Hemorrhage
Emphysema
Bronchiolitis with granulation tissue
Methemoglobinemia
Cyanosis
Necrosis of skeletal muscle.
204
How would you diagnose Nitrogen Oxide toxicosis?
History
205
What is the treatmet for Nitrogen oxide toxicosis?
**Fresh air, oxygen**
Diuretics
Antioxidants (Actetylcysteine, Vitamin E)
**Methylene Blue IV**
206
How is nitrogen oxide formed?
From incomplete reduction of nitrates during fermentation in silos.
DO NOT enter if there is an irritant odor or yellow haze.
207
NO2 has a _______ color,
while N2O4 is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
N2O has a red-brown color while
N2O4 is colorless.
208
What is the MOA of Sulfur Oxide gas?
**Sharply irritant to mucous membranes** (sulfurous and sulfuric acid).
Can get **reflex bradycardia**.
Lung damage and **death by anoxemia**.
209
What are the clinical signs of Sulfur Oxide gas?
Odor causes **choking, coughing and suffocation.**
210
How would you diagnose Sulfur Oxide toxicosis?
Similar to other gases.
211
How would you treat sulfur oxide toxicosis?
Supportive care
212
Bufo toad toxins are found in the _________ toad on the east coast and
the __________ toad in the southwestern region.
Cane/Marine
Colorado River
213
Cane toads are found in which states or areas?
FL, southern TX, Hawaii, Puerto Rico
214
Colorado River Toads are found in what area?
Southwestern US from Arizona to CA.
215
The toxins are found in what glands of the toad?
Parotid salivary
216
What are the toxins within the toads?
**Catecholamines, Serotonin**
**Bufagenins and Bufotoxins**= *cardioactive steroids*
**Indole alkylamines**= *similar to LSD* (hallucinogenic)
217
What is the MOA of the Bufo Toad Toxin?
Irritation of the mucous membranes.
Effects the heart, blood vessels and CNS.
It is Digitalis-like and so it inhibits the Na+/K+ ATPase pump.
Causes vasoconstriction and hallucination
218
What are the clinical signs of the Bufo Toad Toxin?
**Irritation**--**hypersalivation/foaming**, **brick red mucous membranes**, vocalization, vomiting.
**Neurologic signs**--**disoriented**, ataxia, **circling**, seizures, opisthotonus, **hyperthermia**, coma
**Cardiovascular signs**-- tachypnea, **tachycardia**, **arrhythmias**, **bradycardia** and collapse.
219
How would you diagnose Bufo Toad Toxin?
Digoxin may be elevated
There would be a moderate incresae in hemoglobin, PCV, BG, BUN, ALP, K+, Ca2+, Ph
220
How would you treat Bufo Toad Toxin?
Flush the mouth and use **activated charcoal.**
Digoxin immune Fab.
Symptomatic seizure control.
Atropine for most things but contraindicated if tachypnea!!
221
What types of snakes are classified as pit vipers?
Rattlesnakes
**Copperheads**
Cottonmouths
Water mocasins
\*Their head is broad and triangular and they have rectangular fangs in the upper jaw.\*
222
Where are pit vipers found?
Every state except Maine, Alaska, and Hawaii.
223
Describe Pit Viper toxins:
Enzymatic and nonenzymatic proteins and amino acids: "killing fraction"
224
Which species are most sensitive and susceptible to pit viper bites?
Dogs
225
Which pit viper snake has the most toxic bite?
Rattlesnakes
226
What is the MOA of Pit Viper bites?
**Hyaluronidase causes venom to spread.**
**Phospholipase A2 disrupts cell membranes**, uncouples, phosphorylation and releases vasoactive enzymes.
Enzymatic/nonenzymatic proteins= hematoxic --\> procoagulant, anticoagulant, cardiotoxic and neurotoxic.
227
What are the clinical signs of a pit viper bite?
Can be rapid or delayed by several hours.
Local tissue reactions: puncture wounds, fang marks, bleeding, edema, swelling, eccymosis, petechiation, necrosis.
228
How would you diagnose a pit viper bite?
Echinocytosis, hemolysis, hemoconcentration, increased OR decreased coagulation time, DIC.
Hypo or Hyperkalemia, liver and renal failure.
229
How would you treat a pit viper bite?
**Keep calm and keep the bite wound below the level of the heart.**
**Polyvalent cortalid antivenom** (available for dogs and may cause allergic rxns)
Diphenhydramine IV/SC
Supportive care
Fentanyl Patch
Immobilization of animal
Corticosteroids, NSAIDs- are NOT RECOMMENDED.
Rattlesnake vaccine for dogs but antivenom still recommended.
230
What is the MOA of a Coral Snake bite?
Local tissue reaction- due to hyaluronidase, proteinase, ribonuclease, deosuribonuclease, and phospholipase.
Neurotoxic
Non depolarizing neuromuscular blockage (curare-like)
231
60% of coral snake bites are what?
Non-envenomating (they have a poor delivery of toxin)
232
What are the clinical signs of a Coral Snake bite?
Local signs: puncture wounds
Cats/Dogs: **CNS depression**, **quadriplegia w/decreased spinal reflexes**, respiratory paralysis, hypotension, and v-tach.
**Dogs only= intravascular hemolysis, anemia, hemoglobinuria**, maybe vomiting and excessive salivation.
Cats= do NOT show hemolysis, anemia, hemoglobinura.
**Aspiration pneumonia** is an important complication.
233
How would you diagnose a Coral Snake bite?
Elevated fibrinogen and creatine kinase.
Morphologic changes to the surface of the RBC, anemia and hemoglobinuria.
Aspiration pneumonia may be visible on radiographs.
234
How would you treat a coral snake bite?
Specific *Micrurus fulvius* antivenom.
Supportive care
235
What is the MOA of Amphetamines?
CNS stimulant, block reuptake of norepinephrine and dopamine.
Inhibits MAO.
Exact mechanism is still unknown.
Peripherally- sympathomimetic effect by releasing norepinephrine and direct stim on alpha-adrenergic receptors and B-adrenergic receptors
236
What are the toxokinetics of Amphetamines?
pH dependent urinary excretion
237
What are amphetamines typically used for?
ADHD treatment
Narcolepsy
etc...
238
What are the clinical signs of amphetamine toxicosis?
**Hyperactivity**, **restlessness**, circling, **tremors**, ataxia, seizures, **mydriasis**, hypersalivation, hyperthermia.
Some may show depression, weakness and bradycardia.
239
How would you diagnose amphetamine toxicosis?
**Hypoglycemia**; tremors may result in metabolic acidosis and rhabdomyolysis.
May be able to detect amphetamines in blood, urine and saliva.
240
How would you treat amphetamine toxicosis?
**Induce emesis, repeated activated charcoal** for sustained release.
Benzodiazepines are NOT recommended.
**Urinary acidfiers** will enhance urinary excretion as long as patient is not acidodic.
Symptomatic or supportive care.
241
Cocaine is an ______ from the leaves of the plant Erythroxylum coca or E. monogynum from Mexico, South America, Indonesia and the West Indies.
Alkaloid
242
Which animals are most sensitive and susceptible to cocaine toxicity?
Dogs
243
Cocaine is absorbed from...
All mucous membranes, crosses the BBB and alveolar capillaries.
244
What is the MOA of cocaine?
**CNS stimulant and sympathomimetic**; *blocks reuptake of NE/Dopamine/Serotonin*.
**Increases catecholamine release**; sensitizes sympathetic effector cells to catecholamines.
_Direct effect on myocardium_.
245
What are the clinical signs of cocaine toxicosis?
Vomiting, hypersalivation, mydriasis, hyperactivity, tremors, convulsive seizures, hyperthermia, tachycardia, tachypnea.
246
What are the lesions associated with cocaine toxicosis?
**Myocardial degeneration**, subendocardial and epicardial hemorrhage, pericardial effusion, pulmonary hemorrhage.
247
How would you diagnose cocaine toxicosis?
**Elevated CK, systemic acidosis.**
Can detect in serum, plasma, urine and stomach contents.
248
How would you treat cocaine toxicosis?
Induce vomiting if no clinical signs- may precipitate seizures.
Gastric lavage with activated charcoal.
Monitor the body temperature.
Symptomatic/supportive treatment
249
What is the name of the marijuana plant?
Cannabis sativa
250
What are the properties of Cannabis?
THC and several other Cannabinoids
251
There is 10% THC in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
20% THC in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
5% THC in\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
10% THC in hashish (dried resin from flower tops).
20% THC in hasish oil.
5% THC in sinsemilla= seedless marijuana
252
What is the toxicokinetics of marijuana?
**THC is highly lipid soluble**; oral absorption is INCREASED by a fatty meal.
**Binds extensively to plasma proteins** (up to 99%)
Metabolized to several active metabolites; one of which is more potentent than THC and crosses the BBB.
Enterohepatic recirculation.
253
What is the MOA of Marijuana?
2 cannabinoid receptors ID'd
CB1- widely distributed in the brain (alters activity of neurotransmitters) and effects on memory, perception and control of movement.
Both CB1 and CB2 are immune cells.
254
What are the clinical signs of Marijuana toxicosis?
Vomiting, **CNS depression**, ataxia, **incoordination**, tremors, weakness, **mydriasis**, and **hypothermia**.
255
How would you diagnose Marijuana toxicosis?
Can be detected in urine and stomach contents.
Mainly based on history and clinical signs.
Human urine tests are not effective in dogs.
256
How would you treat Marijuana toxicosis?
Usually resolves spontaneously without treatment.
Emesis (but not usually effective b/c THC is an anti-emetic.)
Repeated activated charcoal.
Symptomatic, monitor the body temperature.
Recovery may take a few days.
Wide safety margin and unlikely to be fatal.
