Final Exam Flashcards
What is energy?
an electrical current that gives us the ability to do work.
What 3 sources from foods do we receive energy?
Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins (all 3 are facilitators that generate heat through the TCA cycle when oxidized)
What is net energy?
the energy available to do work
The sun releases ______ which transfer energy to free electrons that hydrolyze _____ in plants and converts it to H2 and 02. Oxygen is released and Hydrogen is used as ______.
photons; water; energy
T or F:
Plants and Animals can capture high energy electrons.
False:
Plants can capture high energy electrons through photosynthesis (animals cannot).
The H2 used as energy can attach to an NAD+ or FAD+ to produce _____ or ______ respectively, which eventually get converted to _____.
NADH or FADH; ATP
How do animals retain their high energy electrons?
Animals eat the plants that contain the high energy electrons and the H2 enters the electron transport train (ETC)
The ETC produces ___ ATP for every NADH and ___ ATP for every FADH.
3; 2
All energy uses what three units?
mass, distance, and time
What is an erg?
the energy required to move 1 gram 1 centimeter in 1 second
What is a Calorie?
the energy required to raise 1 gram of water by 1 degree centigrade (from 14.5 to 15.5 degrees centigrade)
What are the units for Joules?
1kg/1m/1sec
Convert 1 Calorie to Joules and 1 Joule to calories.
1 cal = 4.184 J
1 J = 0.234 cal
State the first law of thermodynamics.
Although energy can be changed from one form to another, it can neither be created nor destroyed.
State the second law of thermodynamics.
In all reactions, entropy will increase until it reaches equilibrium (this occurs faster in a closed system).
Define entropy
equilibrium; the degree of randomness (this value is always negative and does have a maximum limit)
Define enthalpy
heat of combustion; the amount of energy present in a carbohydrate, fat, or protein.
What is the Carbohydrate energy content?
4.1 kcal/g
What is the fat energy content?
9.4 kcal/g
What is the protein energy content?
5.65 kcal/g
Define gross energy.
the uneaten energy found in food (measured by a bomb calorimeter).
T or F:
You can accurately compare diets using gross energy,
Gross energy is not a good way to copare diets because it does not exactly express how much energy is digested.
DE?
Digestible energy (largest source of energy loss in the diet)
What components make up DE?
DE = IE - FE
IE?
Intake energy (measured in kcal/day [kcal/g * g/day])
ME?
Metabolizable energy (made up of unrine UE, gill ZE, and surface energy SE
What components make up ME?
ME=IE-(FE+UE+GE) or ME=DE-(UE+GE)
Why do avian nutritionist use ME to measure DE?
Because it is physically impossible to separate feces from urine in avian species.
GE?
Gaseous energy (energy lost as methane)
The more _____ associated with GE the more energy that is lost; while the more _____ the more energy that is saved.
acetate; proprionate
GE is ___% of the DE in non-ruminants and __to__% of the DE in ruminants.
8%; 22-25%
RE?
Recovered Energy (analogous to net energy); the amount of energy we can use to do work.
What are the 5 components of RE?
TE- tissue energy LE-lactation energy OE-ovuum (egg) energy YE-conceptus energy VE-wool, hair, feathers
HE?
Heat production
What components make up HE?
HE=ME-RE or ME=RE+HE
H_E is the part of HE that is always measured in an animals’s thermal neutral zone.
HeE or BMR-basal metabolic rate
What is an animal’s “thermal neutral zone”?
the temperature at which an animal needs to do no physical, or chemical work in order to regulate its body temperature.
H_E is the part of HE that characterizes the normal, everyday activities of the animal.
HjE or Voluntary activity (examples include eating, drinking, walking, etc.)
H_E is the part of HE that uses energy to synthesize a protein, fatty acid, etc.
HrE or Product formation
H_E is the part of HE involved in digestion and absorption.
HdE
H_E is the part of HE involved in thermal regulation.
HcE
H_E is the part of HE involved in the heat of fermentation.
HfE
H_E is the part of HE involved in waste formation and excretion.
HwE
What energy component is known for being the largest soure of energy loss in animals?
Fecal energy (FE)
__to__% of FE from roughage is lost and __to__% of FE from concentrate is lost in Cattle and Sheep
40-50%; 20-30%
__to__% of FE from concentrate and roughage is lost in Horses.
35-40%
___% of FE from a well-balanced ration is lost in swine.
20%
About __% of FE from a well-balanced ration is lost in humans.
10% (highest digestibility)
HiE?
Heat increment (The increase in heat production after food consumption in an animal in its thermal neutral zone. (associated with digestion, absorption, and excretion)
What components make up HiE? (equation)
HiE=HrE+HdE+HfE+HwE
What percent of DE do HrE +HwE make up?
20-25%
What percent of DE do HdE+HfE make up?
4.3-4.4%
NEg?
Net energy growth
NEm?
Net energy maintenance
What components make up NEm?
NEm=HeE+HjE
The energy recovery of protein is about ___% efficient.
85%
__% of NE is NEm and __% of NE is NEr, and can be used to make combustible products (growth, lactation, pregnancy, conceptus, hair/wool/feathers/eggs)
90%; 10%
What is an endotherm?
warm-blooded animal; animal that generates its own heat by inner body functions
Why is it impossible for animals to grow, be pregnant and/or lactate at the same time?
Because NEr (net energy recovery) is 5% or less of the energy intake of most animals
What are R selected animals?
Those selected for reproduction; they can divide their energy between growth, pregnancy, and lactation
What are K selected animals?
Those that can rarely maintain multiple functions simultaneously.
What is a vitamin?
An essential organic compound required in very small amounts (micronutrients).
What 3 aspects of life are vitamins required for?
growth, metabolism, and maintenance of health
What is a homeotherm?
An animal that has the capability to maintain a constant body temperature (ex: humans 98.6 degrees)
Which vitamin is usually taken to prevent sickness?
Vitamin C
Which vitamin deficiency causes scurvy?
Vitamin C
What are the 4 fat soluble vitamins?
A, D, E, K
What is the best source for fat soluble vitamins?
Meat (can be stored in the fatty areas of the body)
What are the 10 water soluble vitamins?
Includes all B vitamins and Vitamin C
Why is it important to receive daily intake of water soluble vitamins?
Water soluble vitamins cannot be stored within the body in large quantities. (They rarely stay in the body for more than a day),
What is the best source for water-soluble vitamins?
plants
T or F:
Toxicity is typically not an issue with Vitamin intake.
True; Vitamins leave our system so quickly that we typically do not see toxicity issues.
______ is a condition associated with Vitamin D deficiency.
Rickets
What is a vitamer?
Different forms of the same vitamin that typically possess different biological values
What is the most potent form of vitamin A?
retinol
Retinoids are found in ______ tissue.
animal
Breaking double bonds (increases/decreases) vitamin A activity.
decreases
Light exposure on a plant (increases/decreases) Vitamin A activity.
Decreases
Beta-carotene must be digested in the ____ via beta-carotene dioxygenas in order to be the active form of Vitamin ___ (retinoids).
intestine; A
Beta carotene only possesses ____ the activity that vitamin A has.
half
T or F:
Carnivores cannot utilize beta-carotene.
True
Carotenoids are found in ______ and are ______ in color.
all plants; yellow-orange
Only about __to___% of carotenoids are actually absorbed by the body.
5-20%
The highest concentration of Vitamin A is found in what organ?
liver
What are the 4 functions of Vitamin A?
1) Responsible for normal night vision
2) Acts as an antioxidant
3) Required for normal epithelial activity
4) Prevents excessive osteoblastic activity
Since Vitamin A acts as an antioxidant, it is also promoted for ______ prevention.
cancer
You must increase ______ in the diet to counteract the self oxidation of Vitamin A.
Vitamin E
What is the difference (structurally) between Vitamin A and E?
Vitamin A has several double bonds and can oxidize itself; Vitamin E does contain repeating double bonds and is a true antioxidant
List the 6 deficiencies associated with Vitamin A.
1) night blindness
2) Xeropthalmia
3) Abortions due to thickening of vaginal epithelium
4) Reproductive failure in males
5) Ataxia
6) Excessive bone growth
What is Xeropthalmia?
Drying and irritation of the eyes
What is Ataxia?
an unsteady gait or difficult with movement
T or F:
Vitamin D can be found in all plants and animals?
True
What is the plant form of Vitamin D?
ergosterol
What is the animal form of Vitamin D?
dehydrocholesterol
What are the 3 major sources of vitamin D in animals?
Liver, kidneys, and skin
Ergocalciferol is Vitamin ____ in plants.
D2
Cholecalciferol is Vitamin ____ in animals.
D3
(Cis/Trans) is the naturally occurring form for most Vitamins?
Cis (with the acception of Vitamin A that naturally occurs in the trans form)
Vitamin E is an isoprene unit similar unit Vitamin ____.
A
What characteristic (structurally) makes Vitamin E an ideal antioxidant?
The hydroxyl group on carbon 6
Why would you not want to consume Vitamin E while eating?
Vitamin E cannot truly be absorbed while eating.
What are the 4 main functions of Vitamin E?
1) maintains cell membranes of all cell walls in the body
2) Decreases blood platelet aggregation (lowers blood pressure)
3) Increases prostaglandins involved with reproduction (increases fertility
4) Increases leucotrienes (efficient in fighting disease)
What are the three deficiencies associated Vitamin E?
1) Loss of membrane integrity (increased permeability)
2) Muscle lesions
3) Negative effects on reproduction
What are the 3 classes of increased permeability associated with a Vitamin E deficiency?
1) Hemolysis
2) Encephalomalacia
3) exudative diathesis
What is Hemolysis?
The rupture or destruction of red blood cells
What is encephalomalacia?
water pressure on the brain
What is exudative diathesis?
bluish-green spots on the the body
Describe the negative effects on reproduction associated with Vitamin E deficiency.
It can cause an increase in embryonic death, atrophy of ovaries, and atrophy of the testicles
What are the sources of Vitamin K?
In ALL animal tissues and in plants
Vitamin K includes ____ the plant source ____ the animal source and _____ the synthetic source.
K1, K2, K3
Only about ___% of the synthetic Vitamin K3 is the actual Vitamin K and is found in all (plants/animals)?
40%; animals
Hemophilia is a deficiency symptom associated with Vitamin ___.
K
What is the primary function of Vitamin K?
Clotting of the blood (prevents hemophilia)
T or F:
Deficiency symptoms associated with Vitamin K are rare.
True
What are the two classes separating water-soluble vitamins?
1) energy yielding vitamins
2) henatapoietic
What are the 6 energy yielding Vitamins?
1) Thiamin (vitamin B1)
2) Niacin (vitamin B3)
3) Riboflavin (vitamin B2)
4) Biotin
5) Pantothenic acid (vitamin B5)
6) Pyridoxine (vitamin B6)
What are the 3 main deficiencies associated with energy yielding vitamins?
1-Lethargy
2-Poor growth
3-Anorexia
What are the 4 Henatapoietic (involved in erd blood cell maturation) Vitamins?
1-Cyanocobalamin (B12)
2-Folic acid
3-Pantothenic acid (B5)
4-Pyridoxine (B6)
What deficiency is associated with Henatopoietic Vitamins?
Anemia
What are the 3 components of a whole grain?
endosperm, bran, germ
The endosperm of a whole grain contains _____ and low quality ______.
carbohydrate; protein
The bran of a whole grain contains many ____-soluble vitamins and ____.
water-soluble; fiber
The germ of the grain contains (high/low) quality protein, is (high/low) in fat content, and has many (fat/water)-soluble vitamins.
high; high; fat AND water-soluble
What are the major sources of Thiamin (B1)?
Major source is in green plant material (i.e. cereal grain, nuts, seeds, and legumes)
What vitamin can be stored within the muscle of swine?
Vitamin B1 (thiamin)
What are the 2 functions of Thiamin (B1)?
1) To convert coenzyme into pyruvate dehydrogenase
2) Acts as an important component in TCA cycle productivity.
What are the 3 deficiency symptoms associated with Thiamin?
1-numbness of the hands and/or feet
2-myocardial damage
3-slower heart rate
Riboflavin contains a 6 carbon carbohydrate in its structure known as _____.
ribose
In an Isoalloxazine ring, the right side of the structure is ____soluble and everything to the left is _____ soluble.
water; fat
What are the 4 main sources of Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)?
1-green forages
2-milk fat
3-eggs
4-organ meat
What is the main function of riboflavin?
It makes two important coenzymes: FAD and FMN
What 2 pathways is FDA involved in?
Beta oxidation and the TCA cycle
FMN produces 2 ATPs via what pathway?
The electron transport chain (ETC)
What are the 6 deficiencies associated with riboflavin?
1) Poor growth (because it is a water-soluble vitamin)
2) anorexia
3) lethargy
4) Lesions around the lips
5) Itching and irritation especially in the genital region
6) Insomnia
What are the 2 main sources of niacin (vitamin B3)?
Brewer’s yeast and legumes (especially alfalfa but NOT CORN!)
We have the capability to synthesize small amounts of niacin from what dietary essential amino acid?
Tryptophan
What is the sole function of Niacin?
Its sole purpose is to produce NAD; Niacin is involved in all pathways that require NAD and is an energy yielding vitamin
What is the specific deficiency associated with niacin?
Pellagra
What is Pellagra?
“Rough Skin”; it is characterized by a change in the tongue from its normal color to red (black in dogs)
What are the 2 main functions of Pantothenic acid?
It makes up coenzyme A which in turn is involved in the TCA cycle and beta oxidatin (needed to activate fats by adding ATPs)
What are the 3 deficiencies associated with Pantothenic acid?
1-water-soluble deficiencies (growth, lethargy, anorexia)
2) Fatty liver (the fat cannot leave the liver because it has not been activated)
3) leg cramps (very distinctive in pigs)
What are the 5 main sources of pantothenic acid?
alfalfa, brewer’s yeast, organ meat, egg yolk, and “royal jelly”
What is “royal jelly”?
Bee spit fed only to the potential queen bee larvae.
What are the main sources of BIotin?
1) Mostly in plants: all legumes, brewer’s yeast, green vegetables, and bran
2) egg yolk
Egg white contains a protein known as ______ which irreversibly binds to biotin through gut microbes.
avidin
All (carnivores/omnivores/herbivores) can make enough biotin through gut microbes (microbial biosynthesis).
Herbivores
What are the 2 functions of biotin?
1) to fix CO2 by adding a carboxyl (COOH) group
2) acts as a cofactor in lipid synthesis, in acetyl CoA carboxylase, pyruvate carboxylase, and other carboxylases
What deficiency is characterized by Biotin?
Scaly dermatitis (similar to “rough skin” niacin) and alopecia (hair loss)
What is the primary function of Pyridoxine (vitamin B6)?
Acts as a cofactor in transaminases (an important component in protein metabolism)
What are the three forms of vitamin B6?
pyridoxol, pyridoxal, pyridoxine
Which vitamin is the only water-soluble vitamin found in higher concentrations in meats than plants?
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) [not found in plants at all but hindgut/foregut fermenters can sythesize it]
What is pernicious anemia?
the red blood cell count is low but the RBCs themselves are enlarged
What are the deificiency symptoms associated with Vitamin B12?
Low cobalt in the soil; cannot synthesize B12 when deficient in cobalt (usually a familiar case in the southeastern region)
