Final Exam Flashcards
What 4 areas interact to cause a state of arousal?
Brainstem, Hypothalamus, Thalamus, Basal Forebrain
Is sleep an active or passive state?
Active
What are the 3 areas maintaining wakefulness?
- Oral Pontine Reticular Formation
- Midbrain Central Tegmentum
- Posterior Hypothalamus
What are the 3 areas that promote sleep?
- Midline Brainstem
- Dorsolateral Medullary Reticular Formation
- Anterior Hypothalamic Preoptic region
T/F: The magnocellular nucleus basalis of Meynert is only involved in arousal.
False: both sleep and arousal
Where does the magnocellular nucleus basalis project to?
Neocortex and midbrain reticular formation
Does the magnocellular nucleus basalis utilize Ach or Ne?
Acetylcholine
What 2 neurotransmitters are involved in wakefulness using locus ceruleus and dorsolateral pontine tegmentum?
Dopamine and Norepinephrine
Regarding wakefulness, the caudal mesencephalic is dopaminergic, cholinergic, or noradrenergic?
cholinergic
Which structure in the wakefulness process utilizes histamine? Glutamine?
Posterior Hypothalamus-histamine
Oral Pontine Reticular Formation- glutamine
What are the four stages of Non-REM sleep?
I-light
II-light
III-deep
IV-deep
T/F: The dominant landscape of EEG is REM sleep.
False: Non-REM Stages III and IV dominate
What stage does REM sleep resemble on EEG?
NREM stage I, (or awake state)
T/F: REM gets progressively longer thru the course of the night.
True
Electrical stimulation of ___ ___ ___ produces slow wave sleep.
Nucleus Tractus Solitarius
With what system does the nucleus tractus solitaries directly wire with?
Limbic System ( ant thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala)
What neurotransmitter is abundant in the raphe nucleus?
Serotonin
A lesion in the raphe nucleus would result in ___.
Insomnia
What is paracholophenylalanine?
Produces insomnia by blocking serotonin production
T/F: Serotonin is the precursor for tryptophan.
False: Tryptophan–>Serotonin–>Melatonin
Where is melatonin released from?
Pineal gland
What environmental change suppresses melatonin?
Bright light stimulation
T/F: Rapidly crossing 6 time zones traveling west disrupts normal sleep patterns.
False: ..traveling EAST..
Where is prostaglandin D2 concentrated and what does it induce?
Preoptic Nucleus; induces slow-wave-sleep and REM sleep
How does the anterior hypothalamus promote sleep?
By inhibiting the waking area in the posterior hypothalamus
Sedatives and hypnotics act at which receptors to facilitate sleep?
GABA receptors
Somnambulism is a fancy word for what?
Sleepwalking
Sleepwalking occurs during what sleep level?
Slow Wave Sleep (SWS)
REM sleep is associated with ___ ___ ___ spikes.
pontine geniculate occipital spikes (PGO)
T/F: You are more likely to remember dreams from REM sleep
True
REM sleep can be eliminated if you place lesions where?
Ventral to the locus ceruleus
Where are REM-ON cells?
Medial pontine reticular formation
Reticular tegmental nucleus
Where are REM-OFF cells?
Locus ceruleus
Which 2 neurotransmitters do antidepressants upregulate?
NE and Serotonin
What is rheobase?
The minimum voltage needed to excite nerves regardless of how long the duration is
What is chronaxie?
Duration necessary at twice the voltage of rheobase
What happens to rheobase during REM sleep?
30% greater during REM; harder to excite nerves during REM
T/F: REM causes hyperpolarization of motor neurons leading to increase in muscle tone
False: REM–>hyperpolarization–>decreased muscle tone
What is REM behavior disorder?
persistant muscle tone during REM sleep characterized by excessive limb and body movements
Vasodilation at the onset of sleep leads to reduction in what?
body and brain temperature
What serves as an endogenous clock regulating sleep and body temperature?
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
How much does brain metabolism decrease by in SWS sleep?
20-35%
What role does adenosine play in sleep?
Adenosine=somnogenic n’trans
For sleep onset to occur, what 2 things are stimulated and what 2 are inhibited?
Stim: GH & Prolactin
Inhib: TSH & cortisol
T/F: Sleep correlates to increased immune function
True
T/F: Sleep deprivation can raise cortisol, which promotes fat storage
True
Does amount of sleep/night correlate to obesity?
Yes: those that sleep longer less likely to be obese
What is ghrelin and where is it released from?
Hormone that promotes hunger and weight gain released from GI Tract
What is leptin and where is it released from?
Hormone that decreases hunger, promotes energy utilization and promotes weight loss; released from adipose
Sleep deprivation leads to __ leptin and a ___ in ghrelin.
Decr leptin, incr ghrelin
What is nicknamed the “electrical storm” of the brain?
Seizures
T/F: Epilepsy is the #1 most common neurological disease
False: Epilepsy=#2
What is the most common type of seizure?
Grand Mal (Tonic-Clonic)
Which type of seizure exhibits no outward signs?
Petite Mal or Absent Seizure
What phase do Grand Mal victims usually lose consciousness: Aura, Tonic, Tonic-Clonic, or Post-ictal?
Tonic: stiff body and loss of consciousness
What nerve can be stimulated to abort seizures?
Vagus
Destruction of myelin causes conduction velocity to ___ which ____ latencies.
Destruction of myelin causes conduction velocity to DECREASE which INCREASES latencies
What mental disorder means “shattered mind”?
Schizophrenia
Does schizophrenia have a/an early or late onset in life?
Early, usually late teens
Which is more common: schizophrenia or schizotypal personality disorder?
Schizotypal Personality Disorder: milder and affects 2-3% of pop. (Schizophrenia is only 1%)
Hallucinations and delusions are examples of (+ or -) symptoms?
Positive
Regarding schizophrenia, excessive mesolimbic activity is associated with __ symptoms whereas excessive mesocortical activity is associated with ___ symptoms.
Mesolimbic= + Mesocortical = -
What is anhedonia?
The inability to experience pleasure
The inability to function with goal-directed behavior is called?
Avolition
Blocking which neurotransmitter seems to help control the symptoms of schizophrenia?
Dopamine
What anatomical abnormality can be seen in patients with schizophrenia?
Enlarged ventricles
Prominent sulci
T/F: Monozygotic and dizygotic twins are equally at risk for schizophrenia
False: Mono=40% Di=10%
What are the four basic humors once thought to control mood?
Blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile
What type of depression shows decreased levels of norepinephrine and serotonin?
Unipolar depression
T/F: Unipolar depression is usually worse in the morning
True
What is the average age of onset for unipolar depression?
30 y.o.
What disorder has a euphoria stage?
Bipolar or Manic-Depressive
Does bipolar disorder have a genetic predisposition?
Strong genetic predisposition
What is the most effective treatment for depression?
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) with 90% success rate
What do MAO inhibitors do?
Decrease breakdown of biogenic amines like NE and serotonin, (70% success rate for treating depression)
How do MAO inhibitors and Tricyclic compounds vary?
MAO inhibitors decrease breakdown whereas tricyclics prevent the reuptake (also 70% effective for treating depression)
How successful are serotonin uptake blockers at treating depression?
85% (ex: Prozac)
What are lithium salts useful for?
Terminating manic episodes
T/F: Omega 3 fatty acids seem to dampen manic episodes
True
T/F: Chronic back pain sufferers are at increased risk for depression and brain shrinkage/brain aging.
True
What part of the nervous system is upregulated in anxiety disorders?
Sympathetic NS
What is the average age of onset for panic attacks?
late 20’s
What are 2 ways of inducing a panic attack?
- inhale CO2
2. infuse sodium lactate into blood
If you have excessive worry lasting longer than 6 months, you could be categorized into…
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
How do benzodiazepines treat anxiety?
enhance GABA receptors by increasing Cl- influx thus hyperpolarizing the cell
T/F: Dementia is most common between ages of 45-65
False: rare between 45-65
avg onset >65
What is the most common form of dementia?
Alzheimer’s Disease
What 2 anatomical variations are noted with Alzheimer’s patients?
Thinning of cortical gyri
Enlarged ventricles
(similar to schizophrenics)
Alzheimers is present in almost all people with ____ Syndrome that live past the age of 35.
Down’s Syndrome
In what areas of the brain do amyloid plaques accumulate in Alzheimer’s patients?
Neocortex and Hippocampus
What are neurofibrillary tangles?
bundles of abnormal filaments in the brain
How can nerve growth factor prevent degeneration in the brain?
Binds to cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain
T/F: Gray matter and white matter receive about the same amount of blood flow.
False: Gray matter 2 times that of white matter
Cerebral blood flow represents about __% of resting cardiac output.
15%
T/F: Incr CO2, decr pH, and decr O2 will all cause vasodilation in attempt to bring more blood to the brain
True
What is a stroke?
Lack of cerebral blood flow
Which stroke is more common: occlusive or hemorrhagic?
Occlusive for 75% of all strokes
The brain uses glucose primarily which gains entrance via what transporter?
Glut1
Where is the blood brain barrier not present?
Posterior Pituitary
Circumventicular organs
What specialized ependymal cells found near the ‘leaky’ areas of the brain?
Tanycytes
What are the 3 systems used to transport amino acids across the blood brain barrier?
L System
A System
ACS System
Which A.A transport system is energy and sodium independent?
L System
L System moves __ and ___ and the A System moves ___ and ___
L System= leucine and valine
A System= alanine and serine
Which A.A’s can the ACS System transmit across the BBB?
Alanine, Serine, Cysteine
T/F: Activated immune cells can cross the BBB.
True
What 2 cells can secrete interleukins and TNF-alpha in the brain following immune signal?
Microglia
Astrocytes
What is lymphocyte activating factor?
IL-1
T/F: IL-1 can only be secreted by macrophages
False: macrophages, glial cells, hippocampal and hypothalamic neurons
What can happen upon prolonged IL-1 secretion in the brain?
Fever, sleep induction, anorexia, dementia, and neuronal death
T/F: IL-1 –> CRF –> ACTH –> Cortisol
True
What 4 things does cortisol downregulate?
IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, CRF
What gland does TNF-alpha, secreted by macrophages, suppress?
Thyroid
What 3 cytokines are said to mediate inflammation?
IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-alpha
What cytokine can be inhibited by vagal cholinergic stimulation?
TNF-alpha
B-cells contain ___ and ___ which can be stim by CRF and inhib by glucocorticoids.
ACTH and enkephalins
What immune cells synthesize GH, TSH, LH, and FSH?
T-Cells
What immune cell synthesizes prolactin, VIP, and somatostatin?
monocytes
Gonadotropins have what effect on T cells and NK cells?
Decreases their activity
T/F: Somatostatin and VIP inhibit the inflammatory cascade
True
Spinal cord injuries decrease what 3 things?
- NK cell function
- T cell function
- Cellular Adhesion Molecules
T/F: Chronic stress has been linked to immunosuppression.
True
Apoptosis is characterized by what 4 features?
- cell shrinkage
- chromatin condensation
- cellular fragmentation
- phagocytosis of cellular remnants
___ can prevent the process of apoptosis.
Neurotrophins
Axotomy involves the ____ of the axon.
Transection
Do glial cells degenerate upon axotomy?
Yes, Wallerian degeneration
Which has more regenerative capacity: CNS or PNS?
PNS
For regeneration, chemotropic factors are secreted by what cells to attract axons?
Schwann cells
T/F: Regeneration of PNS only occurs for motor neurons.
False: occurs at motor, sensory, and autonomic
What is focal hand dystonia?
Unable to independently control digits of hand
What makes one prone to focal hand dystonia?
People who move fingers together at high rate of activity for prolonged periods of time.
What happens to the somatosensory representation when two digits function together for prolonged time?
Cortical representations of 2 digits become one
How do astrocytes communicate among themselves?
Via calcium waves
T/F: There isn’t one single attention center in the brain.
True
What organ is responsible for proliferation and differentiation of T cells?
Thymus
When the thymus is removed there is a degeneration of what structure in the brain?
Anterior pituitary gland
T/F: The thymic activity is completely absent by age 25.
False diminished but never completely gone
