Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
What 4 areas interact to cause a state of arousal?
A
Brainstem, Hypothalamus, Thalamus, Basal Forebrain
2
Q
Is sleep an active or passive state?
A
Active
3
Q
What are the 3 areas maintaining wakefulness?
A
- Oral Pontine Reticular Formation
- Midbrain Central Tegmentum
- Posterior Hypothalamus
4
Q
What are the 3 areas that promote sleep?
A
- Midline Brainstem
- Dorsolateral Medullary Reticular Formation
- Anterior Hypothalamic Preoptic region
5
Q
T/F: The magnocellular nucleus basalis of Meynert is only involved in arousal.
A
False: both sleep and arousal
6
Q
Where does the magnocellular nucleus basalis project to?
A
Neocortex and midbrain reticular formation
7
Q
Does the magnocellular nucleus basalis utilize Ach or Ne?
A
Acetylcholine
8
Q
What 2 neurotransmitters are involved in wakefulness using locus ceruleus and dorsolateral pontine tegmentum?
A
Dopamine and Norepinephrine
9
Q
Regarding wakefulness, the caudal mesencephalic is dopaminergic, cholinergic, or noradrenergic?
A
cholinergic
10
Q
Which structure in the wakefulness process utilizes histamine? Glutamine?
A
Posterior Hypothalamus-histamine
Oral Pontine Reticular Formation- glutamine
11
Q
What are the four stages of Non-REM sleep?
A
I-light
II-light
III-deep
IV-deep
12
Q
T/F: The dominant landscape of EEG is REM sleep.
A
False: Non-REM Stages III and IV dominate
13
Q
What stage does REM sleep resemble on EEG?
A
NREM stage I, (or awake state)
14
Q
T/F: REM gets progressively longer thru the course of the night.
A
True
15
Q
Electrical stimulation of ___ ___ ___ produces slow wave sleep.
A
Nucleus Tractus Solitarius
16
Q
With what system does the nucleus tractus solitaries directly wire with?
A
Limbic System ( ant thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala)
17
Q
What neurotransmitter is abundant in the raphe nucleus?
A
Serotonin
18
Q
A lesion in the raphe nucleus would result in ___.
A
Insomnia
19
Q
What is paracholophenylalanine?
A
Produces insomnia by blocking serotonin production
20
Q
T/F: Serotonin is the precursor for tryptophan.
A
False: Tryptophan–>Serotonin–>Melatonin
21
Q
Where is melatonin released from?
A
Pineal gland
22
Q
What environmental change suppresses melatonin?
A
Bright light stimulation
23
Q
T/F: Rapidly crossing 6 time zones traveling west disrupts normal sleep patterns.
A
False: ..traveling EAST..
24
Q
Where is prostaglandin D2 concentrated and what does it induce?
A
Preoptic Nucleus; induces slow-wave-sleep and REM sleep
25
How does the anterior hypothalamus promote sleep?
By inhibiting the waking area in the posterior hypothalamus
26
Sedatives and hypnotics act at which receptors to facilitate sleep?
GABA receptors
27
Somnambulism is a fancy word for what?
Sleepwalking
28
Sleepwalking occurs during what sleep level?
Slow Wave Sleep (SWS)
29
REM sleep is associated with ___ ___ ___ spikes.
pontine geniculate occipital spikes (PGO)
30
T/F: You are more likely to remember dreams from REM sleep
True
31
REM sleep can be eliminated if you place lesions where?
Ventral to the locus ceruleus
32
Where are REM-ON cells?
Medial pontine reticular formation
| Reticular tegmental nucleus
33
Where are REM-OFF cells?
Locus ceruleus
34
Which 2 neurotransmitters do antidepressants upregulate?
NE and Serotonin
35
What is rheobase?
The minimum voltage needed to excite nerves regardless of how long the duration is
36
What is chronaxie?
Duration necessary at twice the voltage of rheobase
37
What happens to rheobase during REM sleep?
30% greater during REM; harder to excite nerves during REM
38
T/F: REM causes hyperpolarization of motor neurons leading to increase in muscle tone
False: REM-->hyperpolarization-->decreased muscle tone
39
What is REM behavior disorder?
persistant muscle tone during REM sleep characterized by excessive limb and body movements
40
Vasodilation at the onset of sleep leads to reduction in what?
body and brain temperature
41
What serves as an endogenous clock regulating sleep and body temperature?
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
42
How much does brain metabolism decrease by in SWS sleep?
20-35%
43
What role does adenosine play in sleep?
Adenosine=somnogenic n'trans
44
For sleep onset to occur, what 2 things are stimulated and what 2 are inhibited?
Stim: GH & Prolactin
Inhib: TSH & cortisol
45
T/F: Sleep correlates to increased immune function
True
46
T/F: Sleep deprivation can raise cortisol, which promotes fat storage
True
47
Does amount of sleep/night correlate to obesity?
Yes: those that sleep longer less likely to be obese
48
What is ghrelin and where is it released from?
Hormone that promotes hunger and weight gain released from GI Tract
49
What is leptin and where is it released from?
Hormone that decreases hunger, promotes energy utilization and promotes weight loss; released from adipose
50
Sleep deprivation leads to __ leptin and a ___ in ghrelin.
Decr leptin, incr ghrelin
51
What is nicknamed the "electrical storm" of the brain?
Seizures
52
T/F: Epilepsy is the #1 most common neurological disease
False: Epilepsy=#2
53
What is the most common type of seizure?
Grand Mal (Tonic-Clonic)
54
Which type of seizure exhibits no outward signs?
Petite Mal or Absent Seizure
55
What phase do Grand Mal victims usually lose consciousness: Aura, Tonic, Tonic-Clonic, or Post-ictal?
Tonic: stiff body and loss of consciousness
56
What nerve can be stimulated to abort seizures?
Vagus
57
Destruction of myelin causes conduction velocity to ___ which ____ latencies.
Destruction of myelin causes conduction velocity to DECREASE which INCREASES latencies
58
What mental disorder means "shattered mind"?
Schizophrenia
59
Does schizophrenia have a/an early or late onset in life?
Early, usually late teens
60
Which is more common: schizophrenia or schizotypal personality disorder?
Schizotypal Personality Disorder: milder and affects 2-3% of pop. (Schizophrenia is only 1%)
61
Hallucinations and delusions are examples of (+ or -) symptoms?
Positive
62
Regarding schizophrenia, excessive mesolimbic activity is associated with __ symptoms whereas excessive mesocortical activity is associated with ___ symptoms.
```
Mesolimbic= +
Mesocortical = -
```
63
What is anhedonia?
The inability to experience pleasure
64
The inability to function with goal-directed behavior is called?
Avolition
65
Blocking which neurotransmitter seems to help control the symptoms of schizophrenia?
Dopamine
66
What anatomical abnormality can be seen in patients with schizophrenia?
Enlarged ventricles
| Prominent sulci
67
T/F: Monozygotic and dizygotic twins are equally at risk for schizophrenia
False: Mono=40% Di=10%
68
What are the four basic humors once thought to control mood?
Blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile
69
What type of depression shows decreased levels of norepinephrine and serotonin?
Unipolar depression
70
T/F: Unipolar depression is usually worse in the morning
True
71
What is the average age of onset for unipolar depression?
30 y.o.
72
What disorder has a euphoria stage?
Bipolar or Manic-Depressive
73
Does bipolar disorder have a genetic predisposition?
Strong genetic predisposition
74
What is the most effective treatment for depression?
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) with 90% success rate
75
What do MAO inhibitors do?
Decrease breakdown of biogenic amines like NE and serotonin, (70% success rate for treating depression)
76
How do MAO inhibitors and Tricyclic compounds vary?
MAO inhibitors decrease breakdown whereas tricyclics prevent the reuptake (also 70% effective for treating depression)
77
How successful are serotonin uptake blockers at treating depression?
85% (ex: Prozac)
78
What are lithium salts useful for?
Terminating manic episodes
79
T/F: Omega 3 fatty acids seem to dampen manic episodes
True
80
T/F: Chronic back pain sufferers are at increased risk for depression and brain shrinkage/brain aging.
True
81
What part of the nervous system is upregulated in anxiety disorders?
Sympathetic NS
82
What is the average age of onset for panic attacks?
late 20's
83
What are 2 ways of inducing a panic attack?
1. inhale CO2
| 2. infuse sodium lactate into blood
84
If you have excessive worry lasting longer than 6 months, you could be categorized into...
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
85
How do benzodiazepines treat anxiety?
enhance GABA receptors by increasing Cl- influx thus hyperpolarizing the cell
86
T/F: Dementia is most common between ages of 45-65
False: rare between 45-65
| avg onset >65
87
What is the most common form of dementia?
Alzheimer's Disease
88
What 2 anatomical variations are noted with Alzheimer's patients?
Thinning of cortical gyri
Enlarged ventricles
(similar to schizophrenics)
89
Alzheimers is present in almost all people with ____ Syndrome that live past the age of 35.
Down's Syndrome
90
In what areas of the brain do amyloid plaques accumulate in Alzheimer's patients?
Neocortex and Hippocampus
91
What are neurofibrillary tangles?
bundles of abnormal filaments in the brain
92
How can nerve growth factor prevent degeneration in the brain?
Binds to cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain
93
T/F: Gray matter and white matter receive about the same amount of blood flow.
False: Gray matter 2 times that of white matter
94
Cerebral blood flow represents about __% of resting cardiac output.
15%
95
T/F: Incr CO2, decr pH, and decr O2 will all cause vasodilation in attempt to bring more blood to the brain
True
96
What is a stroke?
Lack of cerebral blood flow
97
Which stroke is more common: occlusive or hemorrhagic?
Occlusive for 75% of all strokes
98
The brain uses glucose primarily which gains entrance via what transporter?
Glut1
99
Where is the blood brain barrier not present?
Posterior Pituitary
| Circumventicular organs
100
What specialized ependymal cells found near the 'leaky' areas of the brain?
Tanycytes
101
What are the 3 systems used to transport amino acids across the blood brain barrier?
L System
A System
ACS System
102
Which A.A transport system is energy and sodium independent?
L System
103
L System moves __ and ___ and the A System moves ___ and ___
L System= leucine and valine
| A System= alanine and serine
104
Which A.A's can the ACS System transmit across the BBB?
Alanine, Serine, Cysteine
105
T/F: Activated immune cells can cross the BBB.
True
106
What 2 cells can secrete interleukins and TNF-alpha in the brain following immune signal?
Microglia
| Astrocytes
107
What is lymphocyte activating factor?
IL-1
108
T/F: IL-1 can only be secreted by macrophages
False: macrophages, glial cells, hippocampal and hypothalamic neurons
109
What can happen upon prolonged IL-1 secretion in the brain?
Fever, sleep induction, anorexia, dementia, and neuronal death
110
T/F: IL-1 --> CRF --> ACTH --> Cortisol
True
111
What 4 things does cortisol downregulate?
IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, CRF
112
What gland does TNF-alpha, secreted by macrophages, suppress?
Thyroid
113
What 3 cytokines are said to mediate inflammation?
IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-alpha
114
What cytokine can be inhibited by vagal cholinergic stimulation?
TNF-alpha
115
B-cells contain ___ and ___ which can be stim by CRF and inhib by glucocorticoids.
ACTH and enkephalins
116
What immune cells synthesize GH, TSH, LH, and FSH?
T-Cells
117
What immune cell synthesizes prolactin, VIP, and somatostatin?
monocytes
118
Gonadotropins have what effect on T cells and NK cells?
Decreases their activity
119
T/F: Somatostatin and VIP inhibit the inflammatory cascade
True
120
Spinal cord injuries decrease what 3 things?
1. NK cell function
2. T cell function
3. Cellular Adhesion Molecules
121
T/F: Chronic stress has been linked to immunosuppression.
True
122
Apoptosis is characterized by what 4 features?
1. cell shrinkage
2. chromatin condensation
3. cellular fragmentation
4. phagocytosis of cellular remnants
123
___ can prevent the process of apoptosis.
Neurotrophins
124
Axotomy involves the ____ of the axon.
Transection
125
Do glial cells degenerate upon axotomy?
Yes, Wallerian degeneration
126
Which has more regenerative capacity: CNS or PNS?
PNS
127
For regeneration, chemotropic factors are secreted by what cells to attract axons?
Schwann cells
128
T/F: Regeneration of PNS only occurs for motor neurons.
False: occurs at motor, sensory, and autonomic
129
What is focal hand dystonia?
Unable to independently control digits of hand
130
What makes one prone to focal hand dystonia?
People who move fingers together at high rate of activity for prolonged periods of time.
131
What happens to the somatosensory representation when two digits function together for prolonged time?
Cortical representations of 2 digits become one
132
How do astrocytes communicate among themselves?
Via calcium waves
133
T/F: There isn't one single attention center in the brain.
True
134
What organ is responsible for proliferation and differentiation of T cells?
Thymus
135
When the thymus is removed there is a degeneration of what structure in the brain?
Anterior pituitary gland
136
T/F: The thymic activity is completely absent by age 25.
False diminished but never completely gone
