Final Exam Flashcards
What is the concept of a “nation,” and why is it central to modern political analysis?
- An “imagined community” characterized by shared history, culture, language, and territory.
- It is central because national identities have shaped state formation and governments’ political legitimacy, influencing both conflicts and policy decisions.
How do scholars differentiate between civic and ascriptive forms of nationalism?
- Civic nationalism: defines membership via shared political values and participation (birthright citizenship).
- Ascriptive nationalism: bases membership on inherited characteristics like ethnicity or religion.
What are “classic patterns” of nationalism according to lecture discussions?
- Asocial Society: Early state competition before industrialization.
- Revolution from Above: Initiated by elite-led state reforms. e.g.: Meiji Japan
- Risorgimento Nationalism: A bottom-up cultural revival leading to political unification. e.g., Italy.
What are the key dimensions used to analyze modern nationalism?
- Elite & Popular Fragmentation: Whether national identity is uniformly shared.
- Ascriptiveness: Degree to which identity is inherited.
- Thickness of national narratives: The richness of cultural and symbolic content.
- Salience of national identity: How dominant national identity is compared to other identities.
- Impact on outcomes: How these factors influence state capacity, public policies, and potential for political violence.
Define “Social Revolution” and explain how it differs from political revolutions and rebellions.
- Social revolution: Rapid foundational changes not only in political leadership but in states class and social structures.
- Differs from rebellions or political revolutions: Social revolutions transform the entire social order.
- Rebellions may be successful, but they don’t alter deep structures.
- Political revolutions only change political leadership.
What does Skopcol’s structural approach suggest about the causes of social revolutions?
- Skopcol emphasizes that revolutions arise from structural pressures such as crises in state capacity, economic disruptions, and international pressures.
- Instead of individual or psychological factors, the transformation is driven by deep-seated socio-economic contradictions and state autonomy—or lack thereof—in the face of external shocks.
In the context of social revolutions, why are they often associated with violence?
- Revolutionary movements carry a normative vision that demands radical change.
- Push for moral and social purity, combined with the need to dismantle established power structures, often leads to the justification of “divine violence” against entrenched enemies.
What are some key indicators or “signs” of a democratic recession?
- Erosion of the rule of law
- Lower public trust in elections and political institutions
- Shrinking civil liberties (e.g., reduced press freedom or protest rights)
- Elites bypassing democratic norms
- These signals suggest that even established democracies may be undergoing institutional strain.
How does Diamond explain the drivers of democratic breakdown in established democracies?
- Diamond argues that accelerating democratic breakdown results from factors such as weakening institutional checks, lower public trust, encroachment of authoritarian practices by elites, and challenges in maintaining accountability in the political system. This leads to a regression even in countries with long-standing democratic traditions.
What is meant by “hybrid regimes” in the context of democratic recession and the third wave of democracy?
- Hybrid regimes exhibit characteristics of both democracy and authoritarianism.
- They often feature formal democratic institutions (e.g., elections) alongside undemocratic practices (e.g., media repression, limited political pluralism), reflecting instability in the consolidation of democratic norms.
Summarize the main arguments surrounding the “third wave” of democratization.
- The third wave describes the surge in democratic transitions between the 1970s and 1990s. Key arguments include:
- Economic growth that bolstered the middle class, prompting demands for representation
- Legitimacy crises in authoritarian regimes
- External influences, such as shifts in international politics and the withdrawal of external supports (e.g., Soviet influence)
- Demonstration effects where successful democratization in one country inspires others.
How does economic development suppoort democratization?
- Economic development supports democratization by creating a wealthier middle class that demands participation and civil rights.
- Economic growth alone is insufficient; effective democratic institutions and political leadership are essential to translating economic gains into stable democratic practices.
What challenges do “defective democracies” face in consolidating democratic institutions?
- Defective democracies struggle due to flaws in civil liberties, weak electoral competition, or compromised government accountability.
- These systems maintain the outward appearance of democracy but fail to ensure full democratic participation and effective governance, leading to potential reversals into authoritarianism.
Compare and contrast the structural factors influencing both social revolutions and democratic recession.
- Social Revolutions: Socio-economic crises, breakdowns in state capacity, and external pressures that create conditions for rapid change.
- Democratic Recession: Gradual institutional decay, erosion of public trust, and incremental shifts toward authoritarian practices within existing democratic frameworks.
- Both: Reveal how deep structural conditions, whether economic or political, shape change.
What role does international influence play in both the spread of democracy during the third wave and its subsequent recession?
- Promotes democratization through external pressure, economic incentives, or modeling.
- Changes in global politics—such as shifts in superpower priorities or economic crises—can exacerbate democratic recession by undermining domestic checks or normalizing authoritarian tendencies.
How do Renan’s and Anderson’s perspectives on nationalism differ?
- Renan emphasizes the “daily referendum” of collective memory—nations are founded on shared historical recollections and sacrifices.
- Anderson views the nation as an “imagined community” where members, though never meeting everyone, share a sense of communion through print capitalism and mass communication.
How did industrialization contribute to the emergence of modern nationalism, according to theorists like Gellner?
- Industrialization reorganized societies by creating mass communication channels, mobilizing a middle class, and standardizing education and language.
- This environmental shift enabled cohesive national identities to replace fragmented loyalties, making nations both imagined and functional in a modern industrial context.
What role do cultural standardization processes play in nation-building?
* (e.g., mass education, language standardization)
- When a country teaches everyone the same history, speaks the same language, and uses the same symbols (flags, national anthems, or holidays),
- These elements forge a shared identity and historical consciousness among diverse populations, reinforcing the legitimacy of the nation-state by uniting citizens around common cultural and educational experiences.
What are the manifestations of democratic recession in established democracies?
Democratic recession can appear as:
* Weakening of judicial independence
* Reduced accountability of public officials
* Erosion of civil liberties (like freedom of the press and assembly)
* Declining voter trust
* Informal practices that circumvent established democratic procedures, even in historically stable democracies.
How do international factors influence the processes of democratization and democratic recession?
-
Promote democracy:
Democratic models (e.g. Western Europe)
Sanctions against authoritarian regimes
Collapse of foreign support (e.g. Soviet withdrawal) -
Undermine democracy:
Global economic crises
Shifting geopolitical power
Rise of populism & weakened institutions
How do elites and popular mobilization interact in shaping national narratives?
- By articulating cultural myths and historical narratives that forge a collective identity.
- These narratives gain traction through popular mobilization, as ordinary citizens adopt and reinforce these symbols, ultimately consolidating national identity.
- Elites create the story of the nation (values, history, identity)
- The public adopts and spreads that story
- This builds a strong, shared national identity
In what ways can economic crises affect the democratization process and its consolidation?
- Democratization Process: Undermine state legitimacy, disrupt social stability, and create fertile ground for populist movements.
- These conditions may accelerate calls for democratic change or, conversely, facilitate democratic backsliding if existing institutions fail to manage economic shocks effectively.
What criticisms are raised against the “Washington Consensus” in relation to democratic development?
- Promotes uniform neoliberal policies that ignore local socio-political contexts.
- Leads to economic inequality, weaken domestic institutional capacity, and inadvertently contribute to democratic recession by undermining the accountability and inclusivity of governance.
What distinguishes “embedded democracies” from “defective democracies”?
- Embedded democracies: Characterized by robust civil society, effective checks and balances, and strong public trust in institutions.
- Defective democracies: Display significant flaws in areas such as civil liberties, electoral competition, or governmental accountability, which may hinder long-term democratic stability.
What risks do hybrid regimes pose to democratic stability?
- Pretend to be democratic but play dirty behind the scenes.
- Hold elections but stack the deck through unfair media control, weak courts, and limited political opposition.
- Creates an illusion of democracy while slowly eroding real accountability, participation, and civil liberties.
- This makes them a slippery slope toward authoritarianism.
What’s the “snowball effect” in democratization?
- When one country’s successful democratic transition inspires or pressures other countries to follow.
- Creates a ripple of hope that pushes others toward democracy. BUT only if the internal conditions are right.
What are the main features of “integral nationalism”?
- An authoritarian and exclusionary form of nationalism that emphasizes national unity through ethnic or cultural homogeneity.
- It rejects pluralism, promotes strong centralized power, and often positions minorities or dissenting voices as threats to national cohesion.
- Historically, it has been associated with fascist regimes such as Nazi Germany.
What is a informal instituion & how do they influence political change?
- Informal Instituions: Gender norms, patronage networks, or backroom deals.
- They can: support, block, or twist formal political reforms. Even if a new law promotes equality, these behind-the-scenes power structures might keep the old boys’ club running the show.
What is a “refolution” and how is it different from a revolution?
- A combo of reform and revolution.
- Baby steps that accidentally burn the whole system down.
- Starts as moderate change (like opening up the press), but ends up spiraling into full-blown transformation. Iconic chaotic energy.
What distinguishes a political revolution from a social revolution?
- Political revolution: Changes the leadership or political structure (like replacing a regime) without fundamentally altering the class or social structures.
- Social revolution: Transforms both the state and the underlying social and class systems—it’s deeper, broader, and more disruptive.
According to Skocpol, what structural conditions contribute to the outbreak of a social revolution?
- (1) State crisis or breakdown
- (2) Widespread peasant or lower-class rebellion,
- (3) The presence of revolutionary elites who can mobilize and restructure power.
- These forces combine in a historical moment, not as a result of individual will, but systemic pressure.
How do census, maps, and museums contribute to nationalism according to Anderson and others?
- These are state tools that help construct a national identity.
- Censuses categorize citizens.
- Maps define territorial limits of the nation.
- Museums preserve a curated national history.
- Together, they shape how people imagine the nation and see themselves as part of it.
What is “democratic consolidation” and why is it important?
- Democratic consolidation: The process by which a democracy becomes stable, institutionalized, and unlikely to revert to authoritarianism.
- Important: Requires functioning institutions, widespread public support, and adherence to democratic norms by both elites and the public.
What are the different outcomes of democratization according to Przeworski?
- (1) Failure and return to dictatorship.
- (2) Temporary democracy before reversal.
- (3) Contested but unstable democracy.
- (4) Fragile democracy with limited guarantees.
- (5) Successful democratic consolidation.
- The outcome depends on negotiation, institutions, and elite behavior.
How do nationalism, revolution, and democratic recession reflect broader tensions between state power and popular legitimacy?
- Nationalism: Seeks to legitimize the state by aligning it with a unified national identity.
- Revolutions: Challenge existing authority when state structures lose legitimacy or fail to represent the people.
- Democratic recession: Signals a breakdown in that legitimacy, as democratic institutions weaken and popular trust declines. * Together, they reveal that state power is always contested—and legitimacy must be actively maintained through inclusion, accountability, and representation.
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