final exam Flashcards
What are the Type 1 and Type 2 verbal categorization tasks? Which type can non-human animals use?
Type I (on the left) – This is an example of a verbal categorization task (or rule-based categorization). In Type I, the categorization is based on a single simple rule, such as “all black shapes are in Category A” or “all triangles are in Category B.” Verbal categorization relies on the ability to explicitly describe and apply the rule.
Type II (on the right) – This is an example of a non-verbal categorization task (or information integration task). In Type II, successful categorization requires considering multiple features (e.g., shape, size, and color) simultaneously, which makes it harder to verbally express the rule. Non-verbal categorization relies more on implicit learning and pattern recognition rather than conscious rule application.
What are the 3 consistent patterns of results in the Dot Diagram in regards to prototype learning?
- Prototype Endorsement:
Participants often classify the unseen prototype as belonging to the category more confidently than even the distortions they trained on.
→ Suggests formation of an abstract prototype in memory. - Generalization to New Distortions:
People tend to classify new, unseen distortions of the prototype as belonging to the category at high rates.
→ Shows flexible category learning. - Poor Recognition Memory for Specific Instances:
Despite successful categorization, participants struggle to recognize specific dot patterns from the training phase.
→ Suggests categorization relies on abstract features, not detailed memory of items.
What are the 2 types of Causality
2 Main recognized types of causality: Natural and Arbitrary
Natural Causality - ex: Launching
Arbitrary Causality - ex, hit button, receive reward
Difference between Categorization and Discrimination
Categorization is the cognitive process of classifying items or events into groups based on one or more distinct features.
Items within a category must be distinguishable even though they share features . Categories change with experience.
Discrimination is the opposite and allows us to distinguish items or events based on distinct features - ‘One of these things is not like the other’
What are the 4 types of categorization?
Perceptual Categorization, Functional Categorization, Relational Categorization and Social Categorization.
What are the 4 pillars of metacognition?
Self awareness
Theory of mind
Mental time travel (episodic memory/future planning)
Metacognition
What are the 2 paradigms of metacognition?
1- Uncertianty Monitoring
- how sure are you that you know what you think you know?
2.Information Seeking
-if you dont know, will you seek out the information to help you know
What is inequity Aversion?
A negative reaction to unequal pay for equal work
If the monkeys see that another monkey is traded a more desired food item (grapes) for the same token, the monkey will refuse to trade for cucumber.
Could be a sense of “fairness”…or just frustration at not being able to get the more desired food.
What are the 4 types of Prosocial Behaviors?
helping
sharing
comforting
cooperation
What are the 3 types of sharing
Proactive Sharing: In the absence of begging
Reactive Sharing: In response to signal of need
Passive Sharing: Simply allowing other individuals to take your food.
What are the Types of Attachment Styles?
Secure Attachment - distress when separated from mother, avoidance of stranger unless accompanied by mother and happy to see mother after separation
Ambivalent Attachment - Shows intense distress when the mother leaves the room, significant fear of strangers, approaches the mother but rejects contact after separation.
Avoidant Attachment - show no interest when separated from mother, plays happily with stranger and ignore mother upon return after separation
Disorganized Attachment - inconsistent attachment behaviors
What is Hamilton’s Rule in Prosocial Behavior
Hamilton’s Rule: Prosocial behavior can evolve via natural selection if the benefit of the action in relation to the degree of shared genes is greater than the cost to an individual’s own reproductive success
Sun tailed monkeys show a preference (less aggression) for kin, and preference decreases as relatedness decreases.
What is Mutualism vs Reciprocity
Mutualism: Understanding individuals simultaneously benefit from an interaction - ‘You scratch my back, while I scratch your back’
Reciprocity: Benefit is not simultaneous - ‘You scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours next time’
What is Altruism in terms of altruism
Cooperative behavior that lowers the donor’s reproductive success while increasing the reproductive success of the recipient of the altruistic act
What is Kin Selection in terms of altruism
A type of natural selection that favors the reproductive success of the relatives an organism helps, even at a cost to the organism’s own fitness
What is Direct Fitness in terms of altruism
A measure of the reproductive (genetic) success of an individual based on the number of its offspring that live to reproduce
What is indirect fitness in terms of altruism
- A measure of the genetic success of an altruistic individual based on the number of relatives (or genetically similar individuals) that the altruist helps reproduce that would not otherwise have survived to do so
What is inclusive fitness in terms of altruism
a total measure of an individual’s contribution of genes to the next generation, generated by both the direct fitness (derived from reproduction) and the indirect fitness (which depends on social interactions with relatives)
What are the 3 types of Signaling
- Honest Signalling
Sometimes referred to as true communication
Cooperative between individuals
- Deceitful Signaling
Manipulation
Sender use the specially evolved signal to manipulate behavior of receiver
Fitness benefit for sender : cost for receiver
Ex; hoax alarm call in drongos
- Eavesdropping
Cue, rather than communication
Ex: Owl hears foraging mouse
What are the 2 types of Mimicry
- Batesian Mimicry
- A palatable species has similar features to an aposematic species, essentially ‘dishonestly’ using that species’ warning signal
- For example, the Viceroy butterfly is not toxic but tricks predators into thinking they are, as it mimics the same appearance as monarch butterflies (make themselves look like monarch).
- Mullerian Mimicry
- Both species are unpalatable, and thus are co-mimics
- Example - venomous snakes both have similar markings, promoting their toxicity
- In this case honest signaling , to widespread the idea that you are toxic ‘Advertising’ your toxicity in a sense
What is aposematism?
Aposematism (idea of having an obvious clue you are not to be messed with ie- a neon frog because they are toxic)
Aposematic species are also considered honest signalers because they are signaling the threat they pose.
What are the 7 Features of Human Language
- Semanticity
- Arbitrariness
- Displacement
- Generativity
- Syntax
- Traditional Transmission
7 - Duality of Patterning
Semanticity - Words or signs stand for other things
Arbitrariness - No inherent relationship between the item, represented and its sign
Displacement - Communication about things distant in time and space
Generativity - Words can be combined in unlimited ways
Syntax - Particular order of language (possibly not the same cross languages)
Traditional Transmission - Acquired through learning
Duality of Patterning - All words formed by combinations of a limited number of phonemes
Who created the 7 features of human language
Hockett
What are the differences in language theory between Hockett and Chomsky
Hockett proposed the 7 features of human language
Chomsky beleived language is unique to humans as we have dedicated hardware and universal grammar. He beleives there is no way we could learn language as quickly as we do if we were limited to associative learning
