Final Exam. Flashcards
midterm converted into final exam
1
Q
development
A
the pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through life
2
Q
child’s healthy development
A
postive relationship with care giver
3
Q
what is childs resilience determined by?
A
By their expereince with individuals, social factors, and family
4
Q
poverty and child development
A
-has lasting impacts
-highest poverty in immigrants, racialised groups, and indigenous
-linked to poor reading skills, criminal behavior, increased stress
5
Q
biological process
A
produces change in a individuals body
6
Q
infancy
A
- birth to 2 years
- extremely dependent
7
Q
early childhood
A
2 year to 6 years old
-AKA preschool years
-more self sufficient: develops play and self regulation
- neuroplasticity is at peak
8
Q
middle and late childhood
A
- 6 to 11 years old
-AKA elementary school years
-master fundamental skills and exposer to culture
9
Q
adolescence
A
- 10-19 years old
-rapid physical change
-pursue independence and their own identify
10
Q
nature
A
the childs biological inheritance
11
Q
nuture
A
their enviromental expereinces
12
Q
continuity - discontinuity issue
A
continuious = smooth ramp
discontinuious = stages of development
13
Q
continuity
A
development happens gradually and steadily
14
Q
discontinuity
A
distinct stages
15
Q
developmental cognative nerosicence
A
link between development, cgonative process, and brain
16
Q
developmental social neroscience
A
connection between development, socioemotinal process, and brain
17
Q
developmental neroscience
A
how your life experiences work with your biology to shape you
18
Q
Freuds 5 stages of psychosexual development
psychoanalytical
A
- oral - pleasure forced on mouth
- anal - pleasure on anus
- phallic - pleasure on genitals
- latency - repress sexual and develope social skills
- genital - sexual reawakening
19
Q
Piaget 4 stages of cognitive development
A
- sesorimotor
- world understand build via sensory expereince - preoperational
- representing world with images - concrete operations
-perform operations with objects - formal operations
-thinking is more abstract
20
Q
Vygotskys
cognitive theory
& 3 main features that influence a child’s cognitive development.
A
learning comes from interactions w/ others
1.culture
2.lanuage
3.interactions
21
Q
pavlov theory
A
classical conditioning
- dogs salivate when they hear the bell cuz they connect it to food
22
Q
Skinner - operant conditioning
A
using positive and negative reinforming
23
Q
ethology
A
biology infuences behaviour
24
Q
ecological theroy
A
emphaisis enviromental factors
25
naturalist obervation
oberving behaviour in real world setting; no manipulation
26
case study
an in-depth look at a single individual
27
cross sectional
indivudlas at different ages are comapred at 1 time
28
longitudinal apporach
same indivudals studied overtime
29
nativism
we are the product of our genes
30
empiricism
it is all in the environment and behaviour
31
BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Psychological development happens as your body grows and changes
mostly controlled by your DNA
32
ppl from the Psychodynamic Perspective
Freud AND EIRKSON
33
Cognitive Perspective
How you think
34
person of Contextual Perspective
Vygotsky’s
35
EVOLUTIONARY PSYC
the importance of adaptation and survival of the fittest
36
genes
where genetic material is
- Most cells have 46 chromosomes
37
genotype
a persons genetic material makeup
38
phenotype
expression of genes that are visible
39
dominant and recessive gene
dominant - overrides the influence of the recessive gene
i.e. 2 brown hair and eye parents having a blonde hair and blue eye baby
40
race and genetics
Race IS JUST a social construct
- No biological bases to group ppl with the same skin color together
41
The Scientific Method
1. Observation
○ i.e. baby: "I found something!"
2. Form hypothesis
○ i.e. baby: it looks yummy
3. Test hypothesis
○ How? By collecting data
○ i.e. baby: eat it
4. Gather data
○ i.e. baby: yuck OR yummy
5. Draw a conclusion (interpret the data)
○ Is hypothesis supported or not supported?
○ i.e. baby: if yuck, im not eating that again OR let me try that again
* Might need to go back and forth from gather data and drawing conclusions
42
Sickle-Cell Disease
○ Shaped like a tear drop
○ Cells cannot pass through small capillaries and block passage of white blood cells
-Its recessive, need both parents to have it
43
Down Syndrome
* Extra 21st chromosome
○ Very much in ur genetic abnormality with 1 extra chromo
44
Evolution means
The process of change in gene frequencies over many generations
45
sickle cell anemia
sickle cell is useful to have in Africa bc it protects against Malaria
46
Natural selection
environmental conditions allow some members of the species to survive and pass on their genes to future generations, while others do no
○ If they don’t survive, their genes die with them
47
False dichotomy
genes are selected by the environment that rep. where ur ancasters lived
48
Polygenic inheritance
Many genes work together to shape one trait
i.e. traits like eye colour
| “Poly = Many genes, One trait.
49
Heritability
genes explain differences among people
50
epigenetic view
heredity and enviroment cause development
51
what are identical twins - zygote
they are from the same zygote that split, being idetical
52
what are fraternal twins
2 eggs fertilized at the same time with different sperm, so 2 zygote
53
the 3 trimester periods
1.the germinal period
2.embryonic period
3.fetal period
54
how many neurons in the brain
100 billion
55
neuronal migration
cells moving outward to form structure and brain of fetus
56
teratogen
an agent that can cause birth defects
- depends the dose, time of exposer, and the genetic susceptibility of issues
57
when is fetus most effected by teratogen
Earlier in fetal development, the baby is more effect from Teratogens
58
teratogen effects on fetus
there are different periods where fetus is more susceptible to malformations in specific body parts
59
when is the fetus most effected by teratogen with central nervous system and heart development
Up to week 6, there is the greatest risk
60
when is the fetus most effected by teratogen effecting the ears, teeth, palate and genitalia
up to week 9 there is the greatest risk
61
when is the fetus most effected by teratogen when developing eyes, arms and legs
up to week 8 there is the greatest risk
62
where is the fetus most impacted in general from genitalia
In the embryonic period
63
what is Thalidomide and what did it cause
○ A drug that was given to pregnant women to reduce morning sickness
-caused baby's with deformities
64
Alcohol effects on fetus
more than 4 oz of alcohol per week can cause FAS
(but depends on genetic vulnerability from mom and baby)
65
fetal alcohol syndrome
-FAS
- causes physical brain damage occurs prenatally and cognitive deficits
66
Nicotine effects on fetus
- connects to preterm, low birth weights, death, and respiratory problems
-MORE HARMFUL THEM ALCOHOL
67
Vaping effects on fetus
-lack of human data: tests done on animals and found baby's will have deficient
-Doesn't matter vape, eat, or inject have harmful effects
68
environmental hazards for fetus
radiation, toxic waste, and pollutants effect fetus
69
maternal diseases
moms that have STD and diabetes can be pasted on to baby
70
3 stages of birth
1.early and active labour - longest period
2.babys head moves through birth canal
3.afterbrith
71
Prenatal Hearing
-yes babys can hear prior to birth
- can feel rhythm and tempo of different languages
72
Prenatal Hearing & Familiarity Dr. Seuss study
-Mothers are instructed to read Dr. Seuss out loud while pregnant *
-After birth, newborns controlled their sucking and they sucked faster (meaning they are familiar) with Dr. Seuss
73
can fetus taste - carrot juice study
Set up
-Women who planned on breast-feeding randomly assigned to drink carrot juice and water
results
- When babies started solid foods they were given cereal made with water or carrot juice
* Infants exposed to carrot juice prenatally would enjoy the cereal with carrot juice
74
can fetus taste - face images study
set up
-moms were told to eat carrots= sweet or kale=bitter
results
-Baby a with kale; Face expressions did not like it AKA a response to bitter kale
-Baby with carrot: Baby was happier
75
Apgar scale
to asses the health of newborns
- if they are high risk infants
-at 1 to 5 minutes after birth
76
Apgar scale; measures 5 things
1.heart rate
2.respiatory
3.muscle tone
4.body color
5.reflex
77
Apgar scale; scores
best: total score of 7-10 means newborn is good
score of 5; may be developmental difficulties
below 3; emergency, baby may not surivive
78
ADHD in Apgar scale
kids with a score of less then 6 have a risk of developing ADHD
79
3 Apgar scales Limitations
1. the socring is subjective to the nurse
2. the mom using anesthesia during birth effects baby
3. 3.just bc the baby socres high, it can still have developmental issues later in life
80
preterm and LBW infants relationship with illnesses
have higher rates of illness and developmental issues
81
Rooting Reflex
Anything that comes near baby's mouth, they will suck it
82
Moro Reflex
When baby hears a sudden loud noise/ feel like they are being dropped, they have a startle effect
83
Grasping reflex
grabs anything that comes near their hand
84
Babinski Reflex
If u strike the baby's foot, their toes will flair out signing to nerve endings working
85
Stepping reflex
legs move automatically when baby's feet feel touch solid surface
86
Neonatal imitation
but is this actual imitation?
You make obvious facial expressions to a baby and the baby will copy the face
-not actual Imitation bc it had not be recreated
87
3 types of baby crys
1.basic cry - discomfort
2.mad cry - more intense
3.pain cry - long shriek then a pause
88
what is Shaken Baby Syndrome (SBS)
-Abusive head trauma sustained by rough shaking
-Damage done in 5 seconds
Brain hits skull, causing bleeding/bruising/swelling —> lack of oxygen to neurons causing cell death = results in permanent brain damage
89
after results of Shaken Baby Syndrome (SBS)
ongoing cognitive issues and visual impairment. Some ppl don't show impairments
90
3 types of low birth weights
* Low-birth-weight newborns: less then 2500g
* Very-low-birth-weight newborns: less then 1600g
* extremely-low-birth-weight newborns: fewer then 900g
○ Very rare baby will make it
91
what makes a newborns Preterm
the age
Less then 37 weeks gestation
92
Kangaroo Care
Recommended treatment for lbw or preterm
* Touch is important to our mental health
○ Provides comfort and trust
93
human body proportions
94
Cephalocaudal pattern
the fastest growth always occurs at the top (the head).
95
proximodistal pattern
growth starts at the center of the body and moves outward to extremities
96
purberty
period of rapid physical maturing with hormones and body changes
97
menarche
a girls 1st period
98
precocious pubery
early onset and rapid progression of puberty's
- can be a result of environmental factors
99
androgens
male sex hormone
100
estrogen
female sex hormone
101
testosterone
type of androgen that develops for boys puberty
102
estradiol
type of estrogen for female puberty
103
what effects Physical Growth Patterns
can be genetic or environmental
i.e. urban more then rural, middle SES more then lower SES, firstborn children tend to be taller than later-born children
* Strongest impact on height & weight
○ adequate nutrition
104
Brain Plasticity
The # of Nerons is usually set but plastic meaning it can adapt to new challenges, especially earlier in development
105
Michael Rehbein case
left hemisphere was removed bc of constant seizures
results
-brain had reorganized itself: typical left hemisphere work moved to the right hemisphere
- but this is not always the case
106
prosopagnosia
a condition that makes it difficult to recognize faces
- damaged brain activity and the active hemisphere did not recover for this info
107
Adolescent Brain Development
Adolescents tend to act based on emotions (amygdala) without full consideration of consequences (prefrontal cortex still immature)
108
Synapse
Synapse are pruned
more synapse is not always better
- At birth you want more bc u don’t have many but later in life it is not always good to have more
109
kids IQ study & brain thickening
Group with high IG go through more change in brain (Cortical) thickness then average children
110
Use-it-or-lose-it phenomenon
○ Regarding Synaptic
○ Ur only better at things u use: if u don’t use it, you will loss it
○ What u don’t practice, you get worst at bc ur brain thinks it is not important
111
REM sleep
-rapid eye movement
REM betters ur learning
112
myelination
increased the speed at which info is processed
113
SIDS
sudden infant death syndrom
- infant stops breathing, usually during the night
114
leading cause of disease realted death in childhood
cancer
115
breast v.s. bottle feeding
in large scale studys there is no conclusive evidence that breastfeeding is better for babys
116
piaget schemes
mental representations that organize info
117
piaget assimulation
when kids use existing schemes
118
piaget accommodation
kids create new schemes or adjust old schemes to fit new info
119
piaget equilibrium
when kids can assimilate their experiences so they are in a comfortable cognitive state
120
piaget object permance
understanding objects continue to exist when you cant see them
- not just relying on touch now
121
piaget Constructivist Approach
kids are active learners
they build their understanding of the world through experience
122
4 pigates Stages of Cognitive Development
1. Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
2. Preoperational (2-7 years)
3. Concrete Operations (7-11 years)
4. Formal Operations (11-adulthood)
123
Piaget cognative development: Sensorimotor Stage 1
understand cause-and-effect & object permanece but NOT fully goal-directed behaviour
124
A-not-B error
kids continue to search for an object in a location where they previously found it, even when the object has been moved
125
Preoperational Stage 2
can talk & signs of thinking
126
Conservation of Liquid/ numbers study
with kids
Kids will say that they are not the same amount of liquid bc they are difference glasses / different amount of coins bc they are moved around different
127
Reversibility
○ the ability to go through a series of steps in reverse direction to solve a problem
128
Conservation
| kids understanding liquad/ number of coins
○ understanding that the same amount remains, despite changes in appearance
-Just bc u change something visually, it does not change the objects being
129
Egocentrism
Only see the world from the kids perspective and kids think that you only see what they see
i.e. mountain task
130
Concrete Operations stage 3
Kids can do mental operations but only for concreate thing
131
Formal Operations stage 4
- Ability to think abstractly
132
Vygotsky’s -Constructivist theory
○ Kids BUILD their own knowledge & learn via the social planes
133
Vygotsky’s - Four Inter-related Levels
| "Oh My Precious Skills'
1. Onto-genetic: one person
2. Micro-genetic: tiny moments of learning
3. Phylo-genetic: long term human evol
4. Socio-historical: society + hisotry shapes thinking
134
Vygotsky’s - Four Inter-related Levels: Ontogenetic
| "Oh My Precious Skills'
one lifetime
learning over ur lifetime
135
Vygotsky’s - Four Inter-related Levels: Microgenetic
| "Oh My Precious Skills'
change that occurs in brief periods of time
136
Vygotsky’s - Four Inter-related Levels: Phylogenetic
| "Oh My Precious Skills'
Long-term human evolution
137
Vygotsky’s - Four Inter-related Levels: Sociohistorical
| "Oh My Precious Skills'
changes that have occurred across generations, in one’s culture, building norms, values, and technologies
138
Vygotsky’s - zone of proximal development
a range of tasks that are too difficult for kids to master alone but that can be accomplished with an adults help
139
Vygotsky’s - scaffolding
Start with small steps and more guidance and eventually provide bigger challenges and more independence
140
Vygotsky’s - private & inner speech
private speech
-important tool of thought, talking to urself
inner speech
-a transition to being more socially communicative,
-Doing private speech without saying it out loud
141
Vygotsky’s social constructivist approach
emphasizes social context of learning
knowledge via social interactions
142
Vygotsky’s - Intersubjectivity
What ur seeing is not what the other person is seeing ; perspective
143
Vygotsky’s - Guided Participation
* Someone older then u teaches you
144
Flipped Classroom
○ Traditional learning (listening to lecture) should be done outside the classroom
- (i.e., by watching a video of the lecture outside of class)
○ During class time, students are engaged in activities
- (e.g., problem solving, group discussions, sharing ideas)
145
Hippocampal Volume and SES study
○ Among the kids there is a positive trend: kids who came from higher SES family's have larger Hippo
- Size of hippo does not mean better, but with adults, there was no difference in hippo size
146
Hippocampal Volume and Learning study
* In children, higher SES was correlated with larger hippocampus but no such correlation observed in adults
what does that mean?
- Environmental factors effect early development
147
What does the Lateral Occipital Cortex (LOC) do?
| remember L.O.C
A brain area that becomes more active when we see whole objects
Helps us recognize and make sense of shapes and complete forms
| LOC = Looks at Whole Objects Clearly
148
Default Mode Network
* Told to rest, and research's will see different areas of the brain are in sync
149
“Resting baseline”
reference point to compare cognitive activity (i.e., conservation task - “resting” activity = mental reasoning)
150
Assumes “baseline"
is the same equalizer across development
151
what do Motor skills represent
& 3 needs infants need to move
-motor skills represent the infants goals
1.Perceive stimulus
2.be motivated to act
3.feedback to adjust movements
152
Adolph's study - kids and slopes
locomotor experience is a primary predictor of how baby's respond to steep slopes
153
infants learning slopes- adolph's study
| not the gender study
where babys knowedge of going down steep slopes does not transfer from crawling to walking
154
Fine Motor Skills
once kids can reach and grasp, it marks significant achievement.
155
Sensation
when your senses get activated by something around you
156
Perception
The interpretation of sensory activation
157
Newborn perception
it is not there yet: brain r not yet specialized; minimal experience which will lack their understanding
158
Preference Paradigm - testing infants
whatever one the baby's looks at more is the one they prefer
159
is there a face-preference with babys?
No, they prefer to look at things that are more top-heavy patterns
160
2 reasons why babys look at attractive faces longer
1. Genetic explanation - Closer to the actually average face the baby is exposed to
2. Environmental explanation- Baby is just exposed to faces that look more like average
161
habituation
getting used to something, so you stop reacting to it after exposure to it multiple times
162
what Chromosomes dictates sex of the baby?
23rd Chromosomes decides whether baby is male or female
163
Jorde & Wooding (2004) Nature
Example of race
individuals from different continents are more similar to each other than individuals from the same continent.
164
Genotype
sum of all genes a person inherits
165
Allele
gene that ur parents give u
(e.g., you receive one allele from each parent for “eye colour and blood type”)
166
Peppered Moths
Example of evolution
* Difference: white or black
* Pre-industrial revolution: mostly white
* Post-industrial revolution: mostly black
this happened bc camo became important for survival
167
what is Evolution
the process of change in gene frequencies over many generations
168
Natural selection
environment “selects” hereditary traits that improve survival
○ That’s how we say genes are selected
169
Evolutionary Theory: Development
infants vision
○ Things are blurry when u r first born
○ Ur brain is predetermining what u can see
170
Developmental Systems Theory
how behavior and gene interact
development is the result of many interacting factors....
environment, behavior, neural activity, genetic activity
171
the 4 levels of Developmental Systems Theory
environment, behavior, neural activity, genetic activity
172
Epigenesis
A change in how genes work, BUT NOT changes in the genes themselves
173
what is function in Epigenesis
Function: gene expression
the function can change
174
When the environment effects an individual, what is changing?
the function: gene expression
it is not changing the structure: DNA
175
rat study: high grooming and low grooming
It’s the environment (the mom’s behavior), not just genetics, that shapes stress response and behavior.
High Grooming (HG) moms →
Offspring = lower stress
Offspring become HG moms
Low Grooming (LG) moms →
Offspring = higher stress
Offspring become LG moms
176
what is methylation
| use rat stdy example
Methylation attaches to DNA and silences a gene.
i.e. in rat study LG moms causes increased methylation. more methylation = those stress-regulating genes are silenced
177
rats that are human handling vs. not handled study
Early life experiences, like gentle handling, can positively affect development.
Handled pups had:
1.Better stress regulation
2.more cortisol (stress hormone) receptors in the brain
3.Were less anxious and more resilient
Handled pups’ moms increased maternal grooming behavior
178
methylation in genes & receptors in human study - suicide
Compared suicide victoms brains:
-12 who expereinced childhood abuse vs. 12 who did not
FINDING: More methylation in the abused group bc of their stress
179
Sandra Scarr: thought on enviroment and genetics
○ Said that if u think that something is environment, it is prob genetic
180
Three types of effects
passive, evocative, active
181
Passive Effects
When genetically related parents are providing the rearing environment
.
i.e. Kids that have rich parents is where the kid is successful
182
Evocative Effects
| remember "E" elicting
The child’s personality or behavior brings out certain reactions from others
* i.e. a 6 month old that is always smiling, strangers will smile back vs baby who is always crying
| elicting a responce
183
Active Effects
When a child’s genotype influences the types of environments they select
i.e. putting ur kid in a soccer team and them not liking it
-The kids genes are not meant to like soccer
184
Breast-Feeding & IQ - example of Environment Theory
Babies who were breast-fed had higher IQs as children, adolescents, and adults, compared to those who were bottle-fed
TRUTH: Found that if u have a CC OR CG alleles and were breast fed that group on avg had a higher IQ then baby's who were bottle fed
185
Conduct Disorder
○ Children (and adolescents) who consistently break rules or violate the rights of others
186
Does early childhood maltreatment effect conduct disorder
Results: The more maltreatment for kids, the more likely u are to develop conduct disorder
187
MAOA Gene study
MAOA enzyme = metabolizes neurotransmitter
MAOA activity mediates the effects of childhood maltreatment on later antisocial behaviour
188
Brain development: when does Formation of neural tube occur?
18-24 days after conception
189
Brain development: neurogenesis
5-28 weeks after conception
Neurons form in one region of neural tube
190
Brain development: migration
Neurons are moving to permanent locations (by 7 months) in the brain
Faulty migration can cause epilepsy, cerebral palsy
191
Brain development: differentiation
Neurons grow and get specialized jobs.
4 steps;
Neurons grow
They make dendrites
They grow longer axons
Each neuron specializes
192
Brain development: Differentiation with myelination
* These fatty nodes protect the axon
193
Use-it-or-lose-it phenomenon
If u use connections, they stay but if they don’t they are bascially deleted
194
Brain development: Cell & Synaptic Pruning
Removal of neurons and synapses that are not being used
Use-it-or-lose-it phenomenon
195
what does Nicotine do to fetuses ; neural development delays
Increased risk for attention and learning difficulties later in life
196
when does Prenatal Hearing occur
at 16 weeks gestation
a developing fetus perceives sound outside the womb through fluid-filled ear
197
Do deaf parents kids have hearing delays?
no
198
Dynamic interaction
parents let kids learn to self-regulate and provide them comfort
199
monkey clip: do they choose the feeding robot or warm robot?
Spending more time with the mom that provides just warmth
200
Preterm Babies and Memory
Hippocampal volume was 12% smaller in preterm children compared to control children
201
puberty: women and testosterones study
Women do have testosterone
- Their estradiol increase in puberty
Men do have estradiol
- Their testosterone increase in puberty
202
Early-maturing girls have what negative effects?
more likely to have evocative genetic issues
i.e. substance abuse, eating disorder
203
Why does cortical thickness change?
| 3 reasons
1: Prenatal development
2: thickening of myelination
3; : Usage-dependent pruning of synapses
204
Piaget’s : Discontinuous Development
Cognition develops goes through specific stages
205
Piaget’s : Children as Active Agents
Children constantly seek out stimulation in their environment
kids guide their own development
206
Piaget’s : assimilation learning
Assimilation = Same schema
You fit new info into what you already know
👉 Example: Calling a zebra a "horse" because it's similar
207
Piaget’s : accommodation learning
Accommodation = Change schema
You change what you know to fit the new info
👉 Example: Learning that a zebra is a different animal from a horse
208
Piaget’s : Mountain Task
All abt kids perspective taking
they don't know what the other person sees even tho they sat in the same seat before
egocentrism
209
Piaget’s : A-not-B Error task?
object permanence: if kids understand that objects continue to exist even when they're not visible.
📋 How the Task Works:
1. An object (like a toy) is hidden under Location A while the baby watches.
2. The baby successfully finds it at A a few times.
3. Then, the toy is visibly hidden under Location B instead.
4. The baby still reaches for Location A — even though they saw it go under B.
210
4 way to test Infants preference
1. Preference Paradigm
2. Habituation/Dishabituation
3. Operant Conditioning
4. Violation-of-expectation paradigm
211
Newborn Vision
Visual acuity is 30x worse than adults for baby's
212
Newborns are drawn to look at what?
Face-like patterns, more specifically top heavy images
213
Habituation
When a person stops responding to something after seeing or hearing it many times.
214
Dishabituation
When a person starts responding again because something new is introduced
215
Phonemic
smallest sound unit in language
216
Own-Race Preference study with babys
3 month old babys look at different faces
infants look longer at a face of their own race relative to other races
217
Can infants discriminate different phonemes?
* By 1- and 4-month olds, they DO have ability to discriminate phonemes
218
Infant Synesthesia
connecting words to certain shapes
219
Violation-of-Expectation Paradigm
It is that Impossible event should surprise u
220
Joint Attention
Ability to focus on same object/event with another individual
Requires the ability to track another person’s behaviour and reciprocate the interaction
age 7mnths-1year
221
Sensory memory
Brief, initial storage of sensory information right after we experience it.
222
Working memory
mental space where we actively hold and work with information
i.e. doing math in ur head
223
Long-term memory
○ Memory that has been stored
224
Long-term memory: 2 types
1. Procedural
-Skills and habits
-i.e. riding a bike
2.Autobiographical
- Factual info
225
what brain parts does Implicit memory use?
| CB = skill Base
Relies on cerebellum and basal ganglia
226
what part of brain is used for Explicit memory
| "How People Think"
Hippocampus, Prefrontal cortex, Temporal lobes
227
Working Memory: Baddeley
The more u rehearse, the increased probability it will be added to long term memory
228
whats Infantile Amnesia
cant remember info from age 3-4
229
1/3 things that explain Infantile Amnesia: verbatim vs. fuzzy trace
Babies remember exact details (verbatim), but NOT the big picture (fuzzy trace), so those memories don’t last
230
1/3 things that explain Infantile Amnesia: sense of self
* Without a solid sense of self , experiences cannot be anchored to autobiographic memory
231
3 things that explain Infantile Amnesia
1. memory as action pattern
2. sense of self.
3. verbatim vs. fuzzy trace
232
3 things that explain Infantile Amnesia: memory as action pattern
Infants can’t use language yet, so they remember through actions and reactions
233
Classic Study - Rovee-Collier
kids memory and ribbon
Ribbon attached to infants ankles and a mobily above them
Through trial-and-error, infants discover that their kicking moves the mobile
when babys came back a few moths later, they forgot until dr gave them a retrerval que
234
Fuzzy Trace Theory - Brainerd et al.
kids memory test
Imagine hearing this list of words:
"bed, rest, dream, snooze, night, blanket, tired, nap..."
Then later being asked:
Was the word "sleep" on the list?
Many people (especially adults) say yes
235
Who do you trust?
1. Older sibling: “I took out the garbage last night like I always do.”
2. Younger sibling: “No, last night you said you were busy so I did.”
Older child more likely to be biased by fuzzy trace from all past experiences (always taking out the trash), whereas young child is more likely to remember precisely last night’s event
MUST BE A RECENT EVENT, If it was awhile ago, better trust older sibling
236
Sam Stone study
tests kids memory
this study tested how suggestive questioning and stereotypes can distort children’s memories.
237
Children’s Memory of Events study
2 truth and 2 lie
kids ask to tell 2 truth and 2 lies abt their life
More then half 50% of 3- and 4-year-olds reported false events
238
Sources of Poor Memory: Increased suggestibility
kids are more likely to accept suggested details as important information rather than question them
239
Sources of Poor Memory: Errors in source monitoring
kids cannot differentiate information that they only “thought about" vs. actually experienced
240
Metacognition
Thinking about your thinking.
241
Theory of Mind
understand that other people have their own ideas different from urs
242
Content False-Belief Task - theory of mind test
A child sees a crayon box, but when opened, it has candles inside.
Then the child is asked: “What will another person think is inside the box?”
🔑 understand false belief: If the child says “crayons”
❌ fail theroy of mind; If the child says “candles"
243
Theory of Mind conclusion
| kids fail for 2 reasons
1.Dual representation
- fails to rep. the current state and previous state at the same time
2.Poor executive function
- hard to keep learned info in working memory
244
Autism Spectrum Disorder + false-belief tasks
-Typically low performance on false-belief tasks
Possible causes: lack theory of mind, weaker executive functioning, language, or all of them being overactivity of perceptual processes
245
Innate Mind-Reading System
Simon Baron-Cohen
The human brain is designed to read other peoples minds
246
The mind-reading system develops as a series of distinct 4 modules:
| "I Eat Sweet Treats"
1. intentionality detector
2. eye-direction detector
3. shared attention mechanism
4. theory of mind & The Empathizing System (TESS)
247
mind-reading system 4 models: intentionality detector
kids understand moving things have intentions
9 mnths
248
mind-reading system 4 models: eye-direction detector
Detects presence of eyes and direction of eye gaze
9 mtns
249
mind-reading system 4 models: shared attention mechanism
Joint attention
9 - 18 mnths
250
mind-reading system 4 models: theory of mind
- Can pass false-belief tasks
- 2-4 years old
251
The Empathizing System (TESS)
6 months: "Feel the vibe" → Babies notice others' emotions
9 months: "Look at that" → Babies start shared attention
252
Stanford-Binet Test
first intelligence test
Is school being wasted on some kids?
-Some kids consistently got the answers right—and those were the ones teachers already saw as “smart”
253
Wechsler Scales
3 tests for dif. age groups:
1. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence
- 2.5-7.5 years
2. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
- : 6-16 years
3. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
- 17+ age
254
Wechsler Non-Verbal Subscale
using blocks with patterns on them to match the bigger goal pattern
255
triarchic theory of intelligence
| ApC
intelligence has 3 parts
1. Analytical - do well in school
2. Practical
3. Creative
256
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory
8 types of intelligence
1. Verbal 📝
2.mathematical ➗
3. spatial 🖼️
4. kinesthetic 🤸
5. musical 🎶
6. interpersonal 👥
7. intrapersonal 💭
8. nature 🌳
257
conclusion with environment and genetics with intelligence
genetics and environment both influence intelligence
-Implication: we cannot change genes, but we can change environment. Education matters
258
Early vs. Late Experience rat study
3 Rat Environments:
1. Normal Cage
2. Free Environment
3. 3. Stovepipe
Rats who had the free environment earliyer
- did best on cognitive tasks & made fewer mistakes
259
Cumulative Deficit Effect study
The more risk factors, higher chance of declined IQ
260
Romanian Orphanages
illegal abortions/ contraceptives
many kids were out into state care in poor conditions
Teenagers still looks like kids, cognitive delays, stunted brain development
261
was the Romanian Orphanages damage reversable?
- If kids were removed from orphanages within first 2 years of life, they had normal developmental outcomes
262
what part of the brain relates to intelligence?
prefrontal cortex
263
Morphemes
Are the smallest units that convey meaning
i.e. car
264
what's Syntax
The rules for combining words
English: subject-verb-object (SVO)
265
Pragmatics
It's not just what we say, but how you conevy it
i.e. eye roll
266
What does the “Statistical Inference” study with nonsense words show about infants?
Infants were exposed to FAKE words.
- kids dishabituated to FAKE words but not to “words”
they can find "word-like" patterns by listenin
-even before they understand language!
267
kids age Vocabulary Development: 1-word utterances
6-15 months
268
what age Vocabulary Development: Can speak about 50 words
1 1/2 years
269
Vocabulary Development: 2-word utterances
AKA combo words
(18-24 months)
270
Vocabulary Development: 3-word utterance
reveal grammar understanding: “He hit me!”
(2-3 years)
271
What is symbolic representation in language development?
Words are symbols
| i.e. The word “dog” represents the actual animal, not just the sound.
272
Vocabulary Spurt
Stage in which infants learn new words rapidly
273
Under-extension
using words too narrowly
i.e. Only calling their own dog “dog,” but not other dogs.
274
Overextension
Defining a word too broadly
i.e. “Doggie” used to refer for all animals
275
What helps children master morphology (word forms and grammar)?
| 5 things
Frequent exposure → 📚 More books = more words
Interesting contexts → 🧠 fun learning
Interactive settings → 👂 Adults reply to questions
Meaningful use → 💬 Real convos
Grammar + vocab variety → ✨
276
Matthew Effect:
The phenomenon of “the rich get richer and the poor get poorer”
277
What is phonemic awareness and why is it important?
Knowing that words are made of individual sounds
(like /c/ /a/ /t/ in “cat”)
It’s the #1 predictor of reading success
278
Dyslexia
Reading disability
-is genetic
More prevalent in boy
279
Girls vs. Boys for reading
Girls tend to score higher on reading tests than boys
280
bilingualism
new language best learned b4 puberty
-If language is learned after puberty, different brain areas will be used
281
Wild Boy of Aveyron
lived alone in woods (age 5~11 years)
He never learned to communicate effectively and after he was rescued he never communicated after it
282
Genie kid study
-discovered in LA in 1970, not allowed to interacting with others until abuse was discovered at age of 1
- despite intense intervention, genie never mastered language
283
What is sensitive periods
Window where experiences have the strongest effect on development.
- learning can still happen later, just less efficiently.
284
What cognitive skills are stronger in bilingual children?
1. 🧠 Attention
2. 🔄 Cognitive flexibility
3. 🧩 Concept formation
4. 🚫 Inhibition (self-control)
5. 🧮 Analytic reasoning
6. 🔍 Cognitive monitoring (checking your thinking)
7. 🏆 Overall cognitive control
285
What does the Behaviorist Perspective say about language learning?
Language is not unique to humans, it's a learned behavior
-Kids imitate what they hear
They’re rewarded (reinforced) for saying words correctly
- classical & operant conditioning
286
What is Semantic Bootstrapping Theory?
-We have an inborn tool that helps us learn lanuage via categorize things into nouns and verbs
287
What does the Nativist Perspective say about language being unique to humans?
Language is unique to humans
We are born with a built-in ability to learn grammar
This is called the Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
288
Isabelle lanauge development story
-Isabelle, a 6-year-old was also rescued from deprivation
1year later
- she was speaking as well as her peers
-Inability to learn language after 13-14 years of deprivation
289
How do children learn vocabulary and grammar?
Kids learn new words, but also grasp their position in sentences (like .
This shows vocabulary and grammar are learned together.
290
What are 5 pieces of evidence for Universal Grammar?
1.Brain regions for language
2. Humans learn grammar easily
3. Can develop language without formal lessons.
4. Critical period
5. Grammar and vocabulary grow together
291
Broca’s aphasia
difficulty with speech production
○ Clear struggle with 1st words
292
Wernicke’s aphasia
difficulty with meaningful speech AKA “fluent aphasia”
○ Words are flowing but without meaning
293
Apes and Sign Language study
effort to teach apes language
--Smartest bonobo ape, Kanzi= learned 100s of lexicons
but they don't understand syntax (3 word combo)
294
Children learn grammar: Deaf
Sign language has a morphology and syntax (not just symbols)
295
Children learn grammar: Lack of vision
Blind kids go through same developmental steps of acquiring language as sighted children, despite visual cues
296
Study - Sadato et al - Bilingualism and blind ppl
* Blind ppl reading Braille show activation in visual cortex.
* The same area a regular brain language understanding
297
How does the Cognitive Perspective explain language learning?
kids learn language by noticing patterns in sounds and speech.
298
How do kids acquire language from a social perspective?
-Kids master language through social interactions
-Note: Adults learn a new language quickly when their partner is a native speaker, highlighting the importance of motivation.
299
7 Basic Emotions
1 happy
2 sad
3 anger
4. disgust
5. fear
6. surpise
7. intrest
300
What emotional signs appear around 1 month old?
Babies may smile, but just a reflex
They can show basic emotions:
😊 positive vs. 😣 negative feelings
301
least understood emotion
disgust
303
What emotional development happens around 4–6 months?
Babies begin to show real, more specific anger
304
What happens in vocabulary development by age 3–4?
Kids start using words creatively & combine words in new ways
304
What emotions develop at 6 months?
Fear: Fear develops as infants start to explore their environment.
- Stranger Anxiety
305
What emotional milestone happens around 2–3 months?
Social smiles begin 😊
Babies smile in response to people
306
What are complex emotions?
| AKA self-conscious or secondary emotions
Success when expectations are met.
Failure when expectations are not met.
307
what emotion develops around age 9
Regret and relief; Requires the ability to think about what could have been, what you should have done differently
308
Social referencing
when babys look to their caregiver to interpret whether a situation is “good” or “bad”
308
Temperament
- It is the Infants’ emotional reactivity and regulation
- What they are born with
309
Kagan’s Behavioural Inhibition theory
| 3 things
We have kids that are
1. Introverted, timid, sociable
2. Extraverted, bold
3.Inhibition to the unfamiliar:
310
What are Rothbart's 3 Dimensions of Temperament (2011)?
1. Extraversion/Surgency: Happy, active,
2. Negative Affect: Angry, fearful,
3. Effortful Control: Focused attention, not easily distracted
311
Goodness of fitness
How well does a child’s temperament meet the environmental demands?
311
Temperament in Heredity twin study's
MZ twins more similar in temperament than DZ twins
312
What is attachment
- Social-emotional relationship between baby and caretaker
-Lack of attachment has long-term detrimental effects
312
Temperament: Gene x Environment
Temperament makes some children more sensitive to environmental influences
313
The 4 idea of attachment - John Bowlby
| "Puppies Always Take Rewards"
- Saw stages of attachment with our primary care givers:
1. Pre-attachment (0-2 months):
2. Attachment-in-the-making (2-7 months):
3. true attachment (7-24 months):
4. Reciprocal relationships (> 18 months):
313
What is Bowlby’s Pre-attachment Stage (0-2 months)?
1st Stage of attachment.
Smiles and cries to engage caregivers.
Reflexes help improve survival.
314
What is the Strange Situation study and how is attachment measured?
Stranger enters and tries to play with the baby.
-Mom leaves the room, baby is left with the stranger.
Baby's reaction: Cries when with the stranger.
Reunion: Measures how the baby reacts when the mom returns.
314
The 4 idea of attachment - John Bowlby: Attachment-in-the-making
| 2nd stage 2-7 months old
Baby recognizes familiar adults
Reacts differently to caregivers vs. strangers
314
The 4 idea of attachment - John Bowlby: true attachment
3rd stage - (7-24 months)
- specific emotional attachments with regular caregivers
314
The 4 idea of attachment - John Bowlby: Reciprocal relationships
4th stage - older then 18 months
- growing cognitive and language skills allows for a true social relationship
315
What is Secure Attachment in infants?
-baby may cry when mom leaves, but when mom returns, baby is relieved
(60-65%
315
What is Disorganized Attachment in infants?
Baby acts confused when the caregiver leaves
-Reactions are unpredictable or odd.
Occurs in about 5–10% of infants.
315
What is Avoidant Attachment in infants?
Baby shows little distress when caregiver leaves.
-Ignores caregiver when they return.
(20%)
315
What is Resistant Attachment in infants?
-Baby is very upset & stays angery when mom leaves.
-Poor emotional regulation & unable to comfort
Seen in about 10–15% of infants.
316
How does insecure attachment in infancy affect future behavior?
connects to behavior difficulties & difficulty trusting others.
316
How does early secure attachment affect future behavior?
have better friendships, romantic partners, positive emotional health, high self-esteem
317
How does early disorganized attachment affect a child’s future behavior?
Linked to the most difficulties later in life.
Expereince issues with emotional regulation and trust
318
Secure infants
have caregivers that are responsive and available
319
What leads to insecure attachment in infants?
Caregivers are unavailable/ dismissive.
caregiving is inconsistent
320
I-self
The part of you that experiences, thinks, acts
- 3 months
321
Me-self
- self concept
- 15 months
322
Generalized “Other”
How other ppl view & respond to us
323
What is Adolescent Egocentrism?
Teens struggle to see others’ perspectives.
-assume others think and feel the same way they do.
324
Imaginary audience
-Feeling there is a imaginary audience bc u r judging urself all the time
325
Personal fable
- Thinking ur thoughts/ feelings are unique
-i.e. teens going thru the 1st breakup
326
Illusion of invulnerability
-belief in uniqueness → misfortune only happens to others
- It explains risk-taking
327
James Marcia identity
choose a course of action & make life investment in it
measures 3 realms: Occupation, beliefs/ values, interpersonal relations
328
What is Identity Foreclosure in James Marcia's theory of identity?
Committing to an identity without exploring others
- doudt will seep in
329
What is Moratorium in James Marcia’s identity theory?
A stage of activly exploring ur identity
| remember mid-search with Moratorium
330
What is Identity Diffusion in James Marcia's theory of identity?
Lack of commitment & uncertainty about who you are
- no sense of direction
- worst developemntal outcome
331
What does "Separation" mean in the context of majority vs. minority culture?
Rejecting the majority culture and focusing solely on the minority culture
332
majority vs. minority culture: real Assimilation
- Removing ur culture to integrate into main culture
- More in the USA then Canada
- May resent the fact u loss ur original culture
333
majority vs. minority culture: Marginalization
- Very lost
-Worst outcome
334
What is Biculturalism, and why is it considered positive?
- Balancing both the majority and minority cultures
- Has the best developmental outcomes
335
Rosenberg Scale of Self-Esteem
25-35 = normal range
If you scored below 15, it is worrisome for self value
336
Adolescent self esteem biggest influences
physical appearance
337
when do kids have the highest self esteem?
preschool, the younger you are
338
How does self-esteem vary by ethnicity in elementary school?
1) Asian have the highest self esteem
2) European
3) then African & Hispanic
339
ethnicity self esteem: high school
1) African have highest self esteem
2)Hispanic & European
3)Asian
339
What happens in the Undifferentiated Stage of Selman’s perspective-taking theory?
Assume others feel/think the same as they do
Age: 3–6 years
Children confuse their own thoughts and feelings with those of others
Fail false-belief tasks
340
What is the Social-Informational Stage in Selman’s theory of perspective-taking?
Child understands that people can have different ideas
Age: 4–9 years
Realizes others may see things differently based on what they know
Can pass false-belief tasks
340
Selman’s Stages: Self-reflective
| 7-12 years
- To “step into” other people’s shoes
341
what are Selman’s Stages theory
| 5 stages
understanding of how others developed
1. Undifferentiated
2. Social-Informational
3. Self-Reflective
4. Third-Party
5. Societal
341
Selman’s Stages: Third Person
10-15 years
-ability to step outside of the immediate situation to evaluate the situation from a 3rd-party perspective
- e.g., argument
342
Selman’s Stages: Societal
Understand that everyone’s view is shaped by culture, society, and values
Even “objective” views have personal bias
14+
343
How do young children describe themselves and others?
-concrete descriptions= kids observe traits
-i.e. "my friend is good at soccer"
343
What does it mean when kids describe others using abstract traits?
- shows more advanced thinking
- i.e. I think my friend is a extravert
343
What are “psychological trait” descriptions in self/other understanding?
Kids describe others using personality traits based on observable actions
- i.e. My friend is nice bc he shares
343
what is Emotional Intelligence
To recognize, understand, and manage your own emotions
343
What did Elias et al. (1997) study find about promoting social and emotional learning (SEL) in schools?
- An alternative to kids getting in trouble: instead of just sending kid to principles office to sit and fester on their angry feelings (they don’t learn anything)
343
344
Can EI be trained?
The benefits appear to be intact up to 6 months post-training for EI
Improvements in emotion identification and management
emotion understanding did not improve
345
Student Stereotypes - study
do undergraduate students evaluate male vs. female instructors differently?
yes they do...
1. Students gave higher ratings to male then female
2. More comments abt female profs personality, entertainment, how students refer to the profs with "professor" then "teacher"
345
Who is “really, really smart”? gender study
-kids shown images for 3 guys and a girl look at a computer
- age 5: girls chose women and boys chose men as smarter
-age 6/7: girls chose men more often then women
345
Inherent Gender Bias study
- mom predicting angle baby can crawl down at
- Moms underestimate the girl kids crawling ability's
-While also overestimating boys kid ability's
- Both boy and girl baby's have the same crawling ability
345
How does a child’s sex relate to temperament and school behavior?
Girls often show behaviors that are better suited for school
→ Better at listening, following rules, and pleasing the teacher
346
Cultural Differences test in gender sterotypes
- In canada and USA
- 90% said yes men are aggressive
- 98% women are emotional
- In Nigeria
- 65% of ppl said yes men are aggressive
- 60-65% said yes women are emotional
therefore= Yes there are cultural differences
347
Kohlberg’s Stage Theory: Gender identity
-by age 2
-children categorize themselves as boy or girl; by age 3, can discriminate anatomical differences
348
Kohlberg’s Stage Theory: Gender stability
- age 4-5 years
-children recognize that gender is a lifetime trait
349
Kohlberg’s Stage Theory: Gender constancy
- age 5-7 years
-children recognize that gender does not change even when appearances are unexpected
350
Gender Schema Theory
Kids use gender labels to make sense of the world
-Assumption: boy needs to know that he is a boy first, before his behaviour can be influenced by gender
351
Development of Aggression: Hostile aggression
- unprovoked behaviour to intimidate, humiliate others
- To lower other ppls & boost ur self esteem
- school aged
352
Development of Aggression: Reactive aggression
- in response to another persons aggressive behavior
353
What is relational aggression in child development?
Harms social relationships
I.e. gossip
Used to hurt others emotionally and boost self-image
Appears as kids get better with language and thinking
354
Is Aggression Stability?
High aggression more stable than lower aggression
355
5 Risk Factors for Aggression
1. Parenting: physical punishment, neglect,
2. Violent content consumption
3. Aggressive peers
4. Academic failure
5. Poverty
356
4 Protective Factors for aggression
1. Trustworthy adults
2. Activities
3. Positive role models
4. Social media
357
Piaget’s Moral Development Stages: Premoral Stage
- Kids don’t understand rules or morality yet
- 2-4 years
358
Piaget’s Moral Development Stages: Moral realism
- Rules must be followed, cant change them
- 5-7 years
359
Piaget’s Moral Development Stages: Moral relativism
- Rules are amade up and kids become more flexable
8-10 years
360
Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory: Level 1: Preconventional
stage 1: must obey rules, only includes rule breaking
stage 2: It is ok to act in a way that satisfies a need; egocentric ...Considers the intent of the action
361
Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory:
stage 3: Act according to others’ expectations regarding what is good and bad behavior
stage 4; Social system morality, Law & order exists for the good of everyone
362
Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory:
STAGE 5; Social contract orientation , ○ Balancing individual’s needs with society’s needs
stage 6:Personal morality that is based on YOUR justice, compassion, equality
363
“Social” Lies
We Sometimes lie to help others
364
Prosocial behavior
voluntary behavior intended to benefit others
365
Prosocial Behaviour: Infancy study
By 3 months, infants choose the prosocial (helping) characters over antisocial characters
By 6 months, infants like prosocial characters and dislike antisocial characters
366
What is social learning?
It is acquiring information from others
367
The 4 types - Impact of Parenting Styles: Authoritative
-Tend to explain rules & encourage discussion
-most successful kids
368
The 4 types - Impact of Parenting Styles: Authoritarian
- rules are to be followed without discussion
- clear power dynamic between parents and kid
369
The 4 types - Impact of Parenting Styles: Permissive-indulgent
-Infrequent use punishment
- Belief that kids are allow to do what they want
370
The 4 types - Impact of Parenting Styles: Permissive-neglecting
- provides for basic needs for kids but little else
-kids with the most difficulty
371
Negative Reinforcement Trap
Parents unwittingly reinforce behaviors they want to discourage
i.e. mom with hudson and how she tells him to turn of video games but then always caves in and he plays longer
372
Infancy - how peers are important: Parallel play
- 1-year-olds
-play alone but are interested in what others are doing, independent play
373
Infancy - how peers are important: Associate play
- 15- to 18-month-olds
-engage in similar activities, may talk/smile to each other, offer toys to each other
374
Infancy - how peers are important: Cooperative play
- 2-year-olds
-will play co-operatively / interactively with special roles
375
Congenital Cataracts
Individuals born with dense cloudy patches on the lens, thereby impacting vision
E.g., like looking through wax paper
376
baby's with Cataracts - how they see study
Infant brain was “waiting” for visual experience, and then fast-tracked development
377
What’s the difference between assimilation and accommodation in Piaget’s theory of learning?
Assimilation = Same schema
You fit new info into what you already know
👉 Example: Calling a zebra a "horse" because it's similar
Accommodation = Change schema
You change what you know to fit the new info
👉 Example: Learning that a zebra is a different animal from a horse
