final exam

Question 1

What is police discretion?

Answer 1

Police discretion is the freedom that a police officer has to decide what to do in a given situation, allowing adjustments to the practical, real-life demands of justice.

Question 2

Where does the authority for police discretion in Canada come from?

Answer 2

It stems from court cases like R. v. Beaudry (2007), legislation such as the Youth Criminal Justice Act, statutes, by-laws, and departmental policies.

Question 3

What did the Supreme Court of Canada establish in R. v. Beaudry (2007) regarding police discretion?

Answer 3

It recognized that
- police officers must adapt the enforcement of law to individual circumstances
- the real-life demands of justice, enabling them to decide not to engage the judicial process under reasonable grounds.

Question 4

In what areas is police discretion often required?

Answer 4

Examples include choosing patrol locations, deciding to stop a vehicle, determining the level of force to use, or deciding between informal resolution and arrest.

Question 5

What factors influence police discretion?

Answer 5

• environmental (community crime levels, socio-economic conditions),
• organizational (policies, supervision),
• situational (seriousness of crime, victim and suspect characteristics)

Question 6

Why is police discretion considered necessary?

Answer 6

• prevents overloading the justice system
• addresses vague laws,
• prioritizes limited resources,
• avoids alienating the public by focusing on serious issues.

Question 7

What are the potential downsides of police discretion?

Answer 7

• inconsistent decisions,
• misuse of power,
• bias,
• racial profiling,
• criminalization of vulnerable groups,
• erosion of public trust if applied inappropriately.

Question 8

How can police discretion be controlled within agencies?

Answer 8

Through better supervision, training, internal affairs units, departmental policies, and internal sanctions for inappropriate actions.

Question 9

What external methods help control police discretion?

Answer 9

Civilian oversight, citizen input, legislation, court rulings, and the influence of social media can all provide checks on discretionary practices.

Question 10

What are the four main policing models?

Answer 10

1. Traditional Policing: Reactive approach focusing on crime response.
2. Community Policing: Builds partnerships with communities to solve problems.
3. Intelligence-Led Policing: Uses data and intelligence to guide decisions.
4. Evidence-Based Policing: Relies on research and empirical data to determine what works.

Question 11

What are the internal challenges to the sustainability of public policing?

Answer 11

1. Resource constraints and budget limitations.
2. Officer burnout and mental health concerns.
3. Training gaps in handling complex modern issues (e.g., cybercrime, mental health).
4. Resistance to change in organizational culture.

Question 12

What are the external challenges to the sustainability of public policing?

Answer 12

1. Rising public expectations and accountability demands.
2. Distrust and strained relationships with communities.
3. Increased crime complexity (e.g., technology-driven crimes).
4. Oversight from civilian bodies and political pressures.

Question 13

What are potential solutions to improve the sustainability of public policing?

Answer 13

Increasing investment in officer wellness programs.
Expanding training in emerging areas like technology and mental health crises.
Strengthening community partnerships and trust-building initiatives.
Adopting innovative technologies to improve efficiency (e.g., AI-based analytics).

Question 14

What are the key features of effective police leaders?

Answer 14

Strong ethical foundation and decision-making ability.
Effective communication and interpersonal skills.
Flexibility and adaptability to evolving challenges.
Commitment to officer well-being and professional development.

Question 15

How do organizational factors impact police discretion and management?

Answer 15

Departmental policies and philosophy (e.g., community policing).
Levels of supervision and accountability mechanisms.
Informal norms and unwritten rules within the agency.

Question 16

How do environmental factors shape challenges in public policing?

Answer 16

Community socio-economic conditions.
Crime levels and types in the area.
Public trust and community-police relations.
Influence of external regulatory frameworks and court rulings.

Question 17

What strategies are used to control police discretion internally?

Answer 17

Improved supervision and officer training.
Establishment of internal affairs units.
Implementation of clear departmental guidelines and sanctions for misuse.

Question 18

What strategies control police discretion from external sources?

Answer 18

Civilian oversight boards and public input.
Legislative frameworks and court precedents.
Social media scrutiny and public transparency initiatives.

Question 19

What does Section 25 of the Criminal Code authorize regarding the use of force?

Answer 19

It authorizes peace officers to use force if they act on reasonable grounds and only use as much force as is necessary. Deadly force is justified only if the officer believes it is necessary to prevent imminent or future death or grievous bodily harm.

Question 20

What did the U.S. Supreme Court case Graham v. Connor (1989) establish about police use of force?

Answer 20

It established the “reasonableness” standard, judging actions from the perspective of a reasonable officer on the scene, accounting for the tense, uncertain, and rapidly evolving circumstances.

Question 21

What percentage of police-public interactions result in the use of force in Canada, according to Hall and Votova (2013)?

Answer 21

Only 0.1% of all interactions result in force, with physical strikes being the most common modality (77%).

Question 22

How does stress impact brain functioning in use-of-force incidents?

Answer 22

Stress activates survival instincts (fight, flight, freeze) controlled by subcortical brain areas, compromising higher-level decision-making processes governed by the prefrontal cortex.

Question 23

What are some perceptual distortions officers might experience during high-stress events?

Answer 23

Officers may experience tunnel vision, auditory exclusion, time distortion, and memory lapses, impacting performance and recall.

Question 24

What are common myths about police use of force, and what does research indicate?

Answer 24

Myths include overestimating the frequency of force, believing a single bullet can incapacitate, and the possibility of “shooting to wound.” Research shows force is rare, bullets often don’t incapacitate immediately, and precision shooting under stress is unrealistic.

Question 25

What roles do police psychologists play in use-of-force events?

Answer 25

They conduct research, consult on training, provide expert testimony, and offer clinical interventions for officers post-incident.

Question 26

What do studies reveal about race and police use of force?

Answer 26

Studies like Wortley (2006) show Black and Indigenous individuals are overrepresented in use-of-force cases. However, the reasons remain debated, involving factors like systemic racism, civilian characteristics, and situational variables.

Question 27

What are the most and least common use-of-force modalities, and how often do injuries occur?

Answer 27

Physical strikes are the most common (77%), while pepper spray is least common (3.6%). Approximately 16.6% of subjects in use-of-force incidents required hospital transport for injuries.

Question 28

What are the four main phases of the RCMP Incident Management/Intervention Model (IMIM)?

Answer 28

(1) Presence, (2) Communication, (3) Physical Control, (4) Lethal Force.

Question 29

What percentage of RCMP interactions involve use of force, and what trends have been observed?

Answer 29

Less than 1% of interactions involve use of force, with significant variability across geographic regions and types of incidents

Question 30

How does a TASER operate to subdue a subject?

Answer 30

A TASER uses electrical impulses to override the central nervous system, causing temporary neuromuscular incapacitation​

Question 31

How does acute stress impact police performance in use-of-force situations?

Answer 31

Acute stress impairs perceptual and attentional control, increases hypervigilance, and leads to inefficient or disorganized decision-making

Question 32

What is the relationship between officer training, years of service, and heart rate during incidents?

Answer 32

Training and experience do not significantly lower heart rate reactivity, though they slightly improve performance under stress​

Question 33

How does SNS activation during critical incidents affect performance?

Answer 33

High SNS activity correlates with increased errors in decision-making, reduced precision, and impaired ability to manage threat cues

Question 34

What are the distinguishing features of Excited Delirium Syndrome?

Answer 34

Features include extreme agitation, hyperthermia, superhuman strength, rapid breathing, tactile hyperthermia, and a high tolerance for pain

Question 35

What physiological processes are involved in ExDS?

Answer 35

ExDS involves catecholamine surges (dopamine, norepinephrine), acidosis, rhabdomyolysis, and eventual cardio-respiratory collapse

Question 36

What are the best practices for managing probable ExDS cases?

Answer 36

Treat as a medical emergency, ensure EMS is called immediately, de-escalate, avoid prolonged physical struggles, and monitor continuously​
.

Question 37

What factors explain the high frequency of interactions between police and persons with mental illness (PMIs)?

Answer 37

Factors include de-institutionalization, lack of community resources, and mental health acts requiring police intervention for violence, weapons, or criminal activity.

Question 38

What are the key forms under the Mental Health Act that govern police apprehensions?

Answer 38

Form 1: Application for Psychiatric Assessment
Form 2: Justice of the Peace Order
Form 47: Community Treatment Order
Section 17: Criteria for apprehension (danger to self/others, inability to care for oneself, or disorderly conduct).

Question 39

What studies highlight the percentage and nature of police-PMI interactions?

Answer 39

Livingston (2016): 25% of PMIs arrested in their lifetime, 10% first encounter police when entering the mental health system.
Huey et al. (2021): 1%-17% of all police calls are mental health-related (e.g., 5.08% wellness checks, 0.55% suicide-related).

Question 40

How do PMIs perceive police interactions?

Answer 40

Perceptions are mixed:

Positive experiences: 46%-57% (Brink et al., 2011).
Negative impact associated with handcuffing or stigmatization (Krameddine & Silverstone, 2016).
Majority report humane treatment in specific interactions (Livingston et al., 2014).

Question 41

What challenges do police face in responding to PMIs?

Answer 41

Resource-intensive calls and long wait times.
Limited mental health training for officers.
Criminalization and “mercy bookings.”
Fragmented mental health systems and limited resources.
Stigmatization and higher use-of-force rates.

Question 42

What is the purpose of tools like the InterRAI Brief Mental Health Screener (BMHS)?

Answer 42

To help officers identify indicators of serious mental disorders and facilitate collaboration with health and justice systems. Challenges include low usability in operational settings and officer resistance.

Question 43

What are the objectives and outcomes of the Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) Model?

Answer 43

Objectives: Divert PMIs to mental health supports, enhance collaboration, and improve safety.
Outcomes: Reduced involuntary transports, improved de-escalation skills, and mixed evidence on arrest rates and cost savings.

Question 44

What are co-response models, and what challenges do they face?

Answer 44

Definition: Teams of police and mental health professionals co-respond to mental health calls.
Challenges: High call volumes, funding/staffing limitations, and hospital system inefficiencies.