final exam

Question 1

Late 19th Century Europe:

Answer 1

Second Industrial Revolution

• New communication technologies: Innovations like the telephone and telegraph revolutionized how people and businesses communicated.
• Efficiencies of scale: Mass production and mechanization increased productivity and lowered costs.
• Cities and manufacturing centers: Urban areas grew rapidly as industrial jobs concentrated in manufacturing hubs.
• Social hierarchy: The wealth gap widened, creating distinct classes of industrialists, a middle class, and laborers.
• Socialism: Advocated for worker control over production to address economic inequality.
• Christian socialism: Merged Christian morals with socialist ideas to promote social justice.
• Liberalism: Focused on individual freedoms, limited government, and free-market principles.
• Anarchism: Rejected government authority in favor of decentralized, self-managed communities.
• Populism: Championed the interests of ordinary people against elite power structures.
• Nationalism: Promoted loyalty to one’s nation, often leading to competitive and exclusionary policies.

Question 2

German Unification (1871)

Answer 2

German Unification (1871) refers to the process of uniting various independent German-speaking states into a single nation-state, officially established as the German Empire on 1871, under the leadership of Prussia and its chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, following victories in wars against Denmark, Austria, and France.

Question 3

Russian Revolution, Tragic Dynasty, Communism

Answer 3

From 1905 to 1917, Russia experienced a turbulent period marked by significant events and ideologies:

• Hunger Strikes, War, Loss, Disconnect: Public unrest due to food shortages, defeats in World War I, and disconnection between the monarchy and the people led to widespread dissatisfaction.
• Bolshevism: A Marxist revolutionary movement led by Vladimir Lenin, advocating for the overthrow of capitalism and the establishment of a proletarian dictatorship.
• Assassination: Political assassinations, including that of Tsar Nicholas II and his family, symbolized the collapse of imperial rule.
• Red and White Armies: During the Russian Civil War (1917–1923), the Red Army (Bolsheviks) fought the White Army (anti-Bolsheviks) for control of Russia.
• Leninism: Lenin’s adaptation of Marxist theory, focusing on a vanguard party to lead the revolution and establish socialism.
• Stalinism: Joseph Stalin’s version of Communism, emphasizing centralized control, rapid industrialization, and political purges.
• Communism: A socio-economic ideology advocating for a classless society where the means of production are owned collectively, central to Bolshevik and Soviet policies.

Question 4

“We have an empire, too, people!” –Austria

Answer 4

• Franz Joseph: Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary (1848–1916), ruling the Austro-Hungarian Empire. His long reign saw political struggles and attempts to maintain stability in a multi-ethnic empire.
• Czech Concessions: Efforts by Franz Joseph to appease Czech nationalists within the Austro-Hungarian Empire by granting cultural and political rights, though tensions persisted.
• Ottoman Decline, Serbian Rise (1882 Monarch): The weakening of the Ottoman Empire created a power vacuum in the Balkans, enabling Serbia, under King Milan I (proclaimed in 1882), to assert independence and expand its influence.
• Ottoman Greek/Armenian Massacres (1895): Episodes of violence against minority populations, notably Greeks and Armenians, under the Ottoman Empire, reflecting ethnic and political tensions during its decline.

Question 5

Gavrilo Princip

Answer 5

“I am not a criminal, because I destroyed what was evil.
I think I am good.” reflects Gavrilo Princip’s belief that his assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was a justified act against oppression.

Question 6

Helmuth von Moltke

Answer 6

“This will be a war which will annihilate the civilization of almost the whole of Europe for decades to come.”
Helmuth von Moltke the Younger, a German military leader and Chief of the General Staff during the early stages of World War I, reportedly made this ominous statement. He foresaw the unprecedented scale and destructive potential of the war, predicting that it would devastate European civilization for decades. This reflects his understanding of how the evolving nature of warfare, including industrialization and alliances, could lead to prolonged and catastrophic conflict.

Question 7

Wilhelm II’s “blank check”

Answer 7

Wilhelm II’s “blank check” refers to the unconditional support promised by German Emperor Wilhelm II to Austria-Hungary on July 5-6, 1914, during the July Crisis following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. This assurance allowed Austria-Hungary to act aggressively against Serbia, confident of Germany’s backing, even if it risked war with other major powers. The “blank check” is considered a critical factor in escalating tensions that led to the outbreak of World War I.

Question 8

start of WW I

Answer 8

On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, marking the start of World War I.

Question 9

Total War: Central Powers

Answer 9

Germany
Austria-Hungary
Bulgaria
Ottoman Empire
Italy
Greece

Question 10

WW I: Entente Powers

Answer 10

Britain
Belgium
France
Russia
United States
Serbia

Question 11

1917: All In

Answer 11

In 1917, with 9 million dead and 21 million wounded, World War I escalated into total global conflict, spurring Ireland’s independence revolution, colonial fighting, and being termed “The War to End All Wars” or “The War to Make the World Safe for Democracy.”

Question 12

Armenian Genocide (1915)

Answer 12

The Armenian Genocide (1915) serves as a stark example of how World War I provided cover for localized atrocities, as the Ottoman Empire systematically targeted its Armenian population under the guise of wartime security, similar to regional conflicts like Germany’s colonial campaigns in Namibia against the Herero and Nama people.

Question 13

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March, 1918)

Answer 13

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk,was a signed agreement between Soviet Russia and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire), ending Russia’s involvement in World War I and ceding significant territories to the Central Powers.

Question 14

Armistice Day (11 November, 1918)

Answer 14

Armistice Day, on November 11, 1918, marked the cessation of hostilities in World War I, when Germany signed an armistice agreement with the Allied powers, effectively ending the fighting.

Question 15

Influenza Epidemic (1918-1919)

Answer 15

The Influenza Epidemic of 1918-1919, also known as the Spanish flu, was a global pandemic that infected about one-third of the world’s population and caused an estimated 50 million deaths.

Question 16

Rise of Fascism

Answer 16

• Rise of Fascism: The period during the early 20th century when fascist ideologies, characterized by authoritarianism, nationalism, and militarism, gained power in several European countries, including Italy and Germany.
• Spanish Civil War (1936-1939): A brutal conflict between Republican forces and Nationalists led by Francisco Franco, often referred to as a “dress rehearsal for World War II” due to the involvement of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.
• Francisco Franco: The Spanish military leader who became dictator of Spain after the Nationalist victory in the Spanish Civil War, ruling until his death in 1975.
• Italy and Benito Mussolini: Mussolini, the founder of Fascism, became Italy’s dictator in 1922, promoting aggressive nationalism, militarism, and the creation of a totalitarian state.
• “What is Fascism?”: A 1921 question often linked to Mussolini’s attempts to define his political ideology, which centered on dictatorial power, state control of the economy, and the suppression of opposition.
• Lateran Accords (1929): A treaty between Italy and the Vatican, establishing Vatican City as an independent state and resolving conflicts between the Italian state and the Catholic Church.
• Germany, Adolf Hitler, and Discontent: The economic hardships and humiliation following World War I created widespread discontent in Germany, paving the way for Hitler’s rise.
• Beer Hall Putsch: Hitler’s failed 1923 coup attempt in Munich, which led to his imprisonment, during which he wrote Mein Kampf, outlining his ideological beliefs.
• Mein Kampf (1925): Hitler’s autobiography and political manifesto, where he outlined his racist, anti-Semitic, and expansionist ideologies.
• 1933: The year Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany, beginning his totalitarian regime and the rise of Nazi power.

Question 17

Germany, 1933 (and on)

Answer 17

• German Repatriation: Refers to the forced or encouraged return of ethnic Germans to Germany from Eastern Europe in the years leading up to and during World War II.
• 1937: Night of the Long Knives: A purge carried out by Adolf Hitler in which the Nazi regime eliminated perceived threats within the SA (Sturmabteilung) and other political rivals.
• Political Persecution: The systematic repression of political dissidents, including Communists, socialists, and other opposition groups, under Nazi rule.
• Jewish Germans: German citizens of Jewish descent who were subjected to discriminatory laws, exclusion, and eventual deportation and extermination under Nazi policies.
• Communists: Political opponents to the Nazi regime who were persecuted, arrested, and executed as part of Hitler’s efforts to suppress left-wing ideologies.
• Intelligentsia: Educated individuals, including scholars and intellectuals, who were targeted by the Nazis for their opposition to Nazi ideology or as part of cultural repression.
• 1938: Wanting Sudetenland: Hitler demanded the Sudetenland, an ethnically German region of Czechoslovakia, to be ceded to Germany, leading to international negotiations and the Munich Agreement.
• 1938: Nuremberg Codes/T-4 Campaign: The Nuremberg Codes established ethical medical standards, while the T-4 campaign was a Nazi program of euthanasia for those with mental or physical disabilities.
• Jewish Descended Europeans: European Jews, including those in occupied territories, were subjected to systemic persecution, forced deportations, and mass murder during the Holocaust.
• People with Mental/Physical Handicaps: Individuals with disabilities were targeted by the Nazis for forced euthanasia and sterilization as part of their racial purity campaign.
• LGBTQ/asocial Folks: LGBTQ individuals and those labeled as “asocial” by the Nazi regime, including homeless people, were persecuted, imprisoned, and sent to concentration camps.
• Roma/Sinti/Gypsy Europeans: The Roma and Sinti, along with other Gypsy groups, were persecuted by the Nazis as part of their racial purity policies, resulting in mass killings.
• Afro-descended Europeans: People of African descent in Nazi-occupied Europe faced discrimination, sterilization, and were often subject to forced labor or other forms of persecution.
• Jehovah’s Witnesses: A religious group persecuted by the Nazis for their refusal to swear allegiance to Hitler, participate in military service, or renounce their faith.
• 1938: Kristallnacht: A state-sponsored pogrom against Jews in Germany and Austria, marked by the destruction of Jewish businesses, synagogues, and widespread violence.
• Appeasement: A policy adopted by Britain and France in the 1930s, aimed at avoiding conflict with Nazi Germany by conceding to some of Hitler’s territorial demands, including the Sudetenland.

Question 18

Global War, 1939

Answer 18

• 1938: Evian Conference: A conference held in France where representatives from 32 countries discussed the growing Jewish refugee crisis, but few countries agreed to offer asylum.
• 1939: Hitler-Stalin Pact (Non-Aggression Pact): A treaty between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, in which both agreed not to invade each other and secretly divided Eastern Europe, including Poland.
• 1939: Germany Invades Poland: On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland, triggering the start of World War II as Britain and France declared war in response.
• 1939: Warsaw Ghetto: The establishment of a confined area in Warsaw, Poland, where Jews were forcibly relocated, leading to overcrowding, starvation, and eventual mass deportations to concentration camps.
• 1939: Britain and Commonwealth Enter War: Following Germany’s invasion of Poland, Britain and its Commonwealth nations, including France, declared war on Germany, marking the beginning of their involvement in World War II.
• 1940: Quislings and Norwegian Invasion: Nazi Germany’s invasion of Norway in 1940, aided by local collaborators known as “Quislings,” who supported the Nazi occupation.
• 1941: Balkan/North African Campaigns: German and Italian forces launched military campaigns in the Balkans and North Africa, aiming to expand Axis control and secure oil supplies.
• 1941: Operation Barbarossa: The German invasion of the Soviet Union, launched in June 1941, which marked the largest military operation in history and a pivotal turning point in World War II.
• 1942: Invade France, Start Blitzing London: In 1942, Nazi Germany began extensive bombing campaigns against Britain, including London, while preparing for the eventual invasion of France.

Question 19

The Rise of Japan

Answer 19

• 1931: Manchuria Invasion: Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931, establishing the puppet state of Manchukuo, which marked the beginning of Japan’s expansionist policies in East Asia.
• 1937: Rape of Nanjing: The Japanese Army carried out widespread atrocities in the Chinese city of Nanjing, including mass executions, sexual violence, and looting, during the Second Sino-Japanese War.
• 1940: Tripartite Alliance: Japan, Germany, and Italy formed the Tripartite Pact in 1940, creating the Axis Powers and committing to mutual defense and support in their territorial expansion.

Question 20

‘Merica, December 1941-Feburary 1942

Answer 20

• 1933: FDR Elected: Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected President of the United States, ushering in a New Deal and leading the country through the Great Depression and World War II.
• 1939: War Officially Begins: World War II officially began with Germany’s invasion of Poland, prompting Britain and France to declare war on Germany.
• 7 December, 1941: “A Day that will live in infamy”: The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor led to the United States’ entry into World War II, famously described by President Roosevelt as a “day that will live in infamy.”
• 8 December, 1941: Declaration of War: The United States declared war on Japan following the Pearl Harbor attack, marking its official entry into World War II.
• 19 February, 1942: Executive Order 9066: President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, authorizing the internment of Japanese Americans in camps across the United States during World War II.

Question 21

The Final Solution, 1942-1945

Answer 21

• The Final Solution (1942-1945): The Nazi regime’s plan to systematically exterminate six million Jews and other minorities through mass shootings, gas chambers, and forced labor camps during the Holocaust.
• D-Day (1944): On June 6, 1944, Allied forces launched a massive invasion of Nazi-occupied France, landing on the beaches of Normandy, which marked the beginning of the liberation of Western Europe.
• Manhattan Project: A top-secret U.S. government research project during World War II that developed the first nuclear weapons, leading to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Question 22

1942: Manhattan Project begins
6 June, 1944: D-Day
Winter 1944-1945: Battles of the Bulge
1945: Red Army in Berlin

Answer 22

• 1942: Manhattan Project Begins: The United States initiated the Manhattan Project in 1942, a secret research and development program to create atomic weapons during World War II.
• 6 June, 1944: D-Day: On June 6, 1944, Allied forces launched the largest amphibious invasion in history on the beaches of Normandy, France, to begin the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi control.
• Winter 1944-1945: Battle of the Bulge: A major German counteroffensive launched in December 1944 in the Ardennes Forest, which was the last significant Nazi attack on the Western Front, ultimately failing due to Allied resistance.
• 1945: Red Army in Berlin: The Soviet Red Army captured Berlin in May 1945, effectively ending the Nazi regime and leading to the conclusion of World War II in Europe.
• RIP FDR: Franklin D. Roosevelt, the 32nd President of the United States, passed away on April 12, 1945, during his fourth term, shortly before the end of World War II in Europe.

Question 23

Truman, Hiroshima, and Nagasaki

Answer 23

• Truman: Harry S. Truman became the 33rd President of the United States in 1945 after the death of FDR and made the decision to use atomic bombs on Japan to end World War II.
• Hiroshima (6 August 1945): The United States dropped the first atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima, causing massive destruction and killing an estimated 140,000 people.
• Nagasaki (9 August 1945): Three days after Hiroshima, the U.S. dropped a second atomic bomb on the city of Nagasaki, resulting in around 70,000 deaths and leading to Japan’s surrender.
• V-E Day (8 May 1945): Victory in Europe Day, when Germany officially surrendered to the Allied forces, marking the end of World War II in Europe.
• V-J Day (15 August 1945): Victory over Japan Day, when Japan announced its surrender, effectively ending World War II after the atomic bombings and Soviet entry into the war against Japan.

Question 24

The Post-War World

Answer 24

• Yalta, Potsdam, Tehran: Key Allied conferences during World War II (Tehran in 1943, Yalta in 1945, and Potsdam in 1945) where leaders discussed post-war order, including the division of Germany and the establishment of spheres of influence in Europe.
• Nuremberg Trials: A series of military tribunals held after World War II to prosecute prominent Nazi leaders for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide.
• Restorative/Retributive Justice: Two approaches to justice; restorative justice focuses on healing and rehabilitation, while retributive justice emphasizes punishment for wrongdoing, both applied in various post-war processes.
• Photography, Arendt’s Banality of Evil: Hannah Arendt’s concept from her writings on the Eichmann trial, arguing that evil can manifest in ordinary people through bureaucratic obedience, illustrated by photographs of Holocaust perpetrators.
• United Nations: An international organization founded in 1945 to promote peace, security, and cooperation among nations, replacing the League of Nations.
• Convention for the Prevention of Genocide: A 1948 international treaty aimed at preventing and punishing genocide, reflecting the post-war commitment to human rights protection.
• Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Adopted by the United Nations in 1948, this document outlines basic human rights to be universally protected for all people.
• Slim Jannie’s Overreach: Likely refers to over-expansion or overreach in a particular context, potentially symbolizing the failures or excessive ambition of leaders or nations in the post-war period.
• 1947: Palestine Partitioned: The United Nations proposed the partition of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, which led to conflict and the eventual establishment of Israel in 1948.
• Forever, Basically: Cold War: The geopolitical tension between the Soviet Union and the United States after World War II, lasting for nearly half a century, shaping global politics and alliances.

Question 25

The Big Three at Yalta, Potsdam, and Tehran But Also Two Superpowers

Answer 25

The Big Three—Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin—met at Yalta (1945), Potsdam (1945), and Tehran (1943) to shape post-war Europe and the global order, while the emergence of the United States and the Soviet Union as the two dominant superpowers set the stage for the Cold War.

Question 26

Nuremberg, Jerusalem and the Banality of Evil

Answer 26

The Nuremberg Trials (1945-1946) and the subsequent trial of Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem (1961) highlighted the concept of the “Banality of Evil,” as described by Hannah Arendt, where ordinary individuals commit horrific acts through blind obedience to authority and bureaucratic compliance.

Question 27

International Court of Justice

Answer 27

The International Court of Justice (ICJ), established in 1945, is the principal judicial body of the United Nations, responsible for settling legal disputes between states and giving advisory opinions on international legal questions.

Question 28

Rebuilding Japan and Germany . and also tearing them apart

Answer 28

After World War II, both Japan and Germany were rebuilt through extensive economic and political reforms led by the United States, but were also torn apart by the division of Germany into East and West and Japan’s transformation into a demilitarized, pacifist state under U.S. influence.

Question 29

Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, Etc.

Answer 29

The Truman Doctrine (1947) and the Marshall Plan (1948) were key U.S. policies designed to contain communism by providing military aid and economic recovery assistance to countries in Europe and beyond, aiming to stabilize governments and prevent Soviet influence.

Question 30

Proxy Wars

Answer 30

Proxy wars are conflicts where two or more external powers support opposing sides, typically through financial, military, or political assistance, without direct confrontation, often occurring during the Cold War in places like Korea, Vietnam, and Afghanistan.

Question 31

International Organizations: United Nations, 1946

Answer 31

The United Nations, established in 1945, began its operations in 1946 as an international organization aimed at promoting peace, security, human rights, and cooperation among nations to prevent future conflicts and address global challenges.

Question 32

Israel, 1948

Answer 32

In 1948, the state of Israel was established following the end of the British mandate in Palestine, leading to the first Arab-Israeli war as neighboring Arab states opposed its creation.

Question 33

Genocide Convention, 1948

Answer 33

The 1948 Genocide Convention defined genocide as acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group through killing, causing harm, inflicting harmful conditions, preventing births, or transferring children, applicable in both peace and war.

Question 34

International Orgs: NATO and the Warsaw Pact

Answer 34

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), formed in 1949, is a military alliance of Western countries aimed at countering Soviet aggression, while the Warsaw Pact, established in 1955, was a Soviet-led military alliance of Eastern Bloc countries in response to NATO.

Question 35

International Gathering: Bandung, 1955

Answer 35

The Bandung Conference of 1955 was a historic meeting of 29 Asian and African countries in Indonesia, where they promoted cooperation, anti-colonialism, and non-alignment during the Cold War.