Final Exam Flashcards
Consciousness and Learning & Motivation
1
Q
What is consciousness?
A
- definition: our immedite awareness of our external and internal states.
- made up of states and contents of consciousness.
*William James thought it as a continuously moving, shifting, stream, flowing with time: “stream of consciousness.”
2
Q
States of consciousness
A
- 1/2 components of consciousness
- level of awareness we have about our external surroundings and internal states.
- i.e. being asleep, awake, dreaming.
3
Q
Contents of consciousness
A
- 1/2 components of consciousness
- specific thoughts we are aware of about our external surroundings and internal states.
- i.e. feeling pain, experience of colour, taste of coffee.
4
Q
Altered states of consciousness
A
- A change in ability to be fully aware of our external surroundings and internal states
- i.e. sleep, dreaming, hypnosis, meditation, anesthesia, psychoactive drugs.
5
Q
What does consciousness require?
A
- Attention
- We must also be AWARE that we are attending to something
- Evidence that some consciousness does not require attention - when flashed an image, one can report its gist.
6
Q
Innattention blindness
A
- People who are not paying attention to a pic/video/scene are unable to accurately report what the visual contains
- e.g. Gorilla video - Selective attention test
7
Q
Neurons when we are awake
A
- At all times, most if not all neurons are active. Even in the absense of direct stimulation, neurons are active at a steady/low level.
- Neuronal networks work together to enable us to process things
- Brain areas responsible for consciousness don’t work in isolation, they are part of the global activity of the brain.
- Interactions of these areas allow us to experience a unified world.
8
Q
Brain areas responsible for consciousness
A
- Reticular Formation
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
- Cerebral Cortex
9
Q
Reticular formation
A
- Important role in our awakeness and therefore consciousness.
- Damage to reticular formation can cause prolongues loss of consciousness.
- Associated with comas.
10
Q
Hypothalamus
A
- An awake brain needs to process information.
- Hypothalamus receives imput from reticular formation and relays it to the cortex to maintain a wakeful state.
- Damage to hypothalamus can cause disturbances in wakefulness
11
Q
Thalamus
A
- Receives imput from reticular formation and
relays to the cortex for consciousness - Activation of loops of circuits between thalamus and sensory motor areas of cortex is critical for our conscious awareness of our surroundings.
- Damage can cause loss of conscious awareness.
12
Q
Damage to thalamus and hypothalamus
A
- If both are broadly damaged, one will lose all consciousness and fall into a coma.
- Damage occuring in only one hemisphere would result in loss of awareness in only half the body.
13
Q
Cerebral Cortex
A
- Involved in one’s awareness of the information received from subcortial structuresFmy
- Also responsible for contents of consciousness. Synchronized activity of cortexes work together to decide what we should focus on.
- Damage can cause loss of awareness (see “blindsight” and “split brain patients.”
14
Q
Blindsight
A
- WeisKrantz studied people with destroyed visual cortexes that were blind
- Found they could attend to objects, they just were not aware of them as their visual cortex was destroyed.
15
Q
Split brain patients and consciousness
A
- When shown a word to left hemisphere, they could say and write it.
- When shown a word to right hemisphere, they could not say or write it.
- Found that left side cortex was responsible for verbal awareness and ability to send signal from mouth to Broca’s area; right cortex was responsible for non-verbal awareness.
16
Q
Development of the conscious
A
- Most children develop a sense of self by 18 months. (Rouge test)
- Full conscious awareness develops at about 22 months.
17
Q
Levels of consciousness/awareness
A
- Conscious
- Preconscious
- Unconscious
18
Q
Preconsious
A
- Level of awareness in which information can become readily available to conscious if necessary
- Automatic behaviours are a type of preconscious behaviour
19
Q
Unconscious
A
- Level of awareness in which information is not readily or easily accessible to conscious awareness during an awake state.
20
Q
Cognitive views of the unconscious
A
- They distinguish 2 types of memory: implicit and explicit
- Explicit: pieces of knodledge that we are consciously aware of.
- Implicit: pieces of knowledge we are not consciously aware of
- These are stores in different brain pathways.
21
Q
Implicit memory
A
- Pieces of knowledge we are not typically consciouslly aware of, we cannot recall at will, but is used in the performance of life tasks.
- On display with the skills we acquire
- Skill improves as we gain knowledge, motor behaviour, perceptual info (implicit memories).
- They are revealed through improved performance - we are not consciously recalling them when performing the skill.
- Factual information may also be involved in implicit memory (i.e. voting)
22
Q
Unconscious decision-making
A
- Quick intuitive judgements
- People making these decisions often rely on “unconscious thought processes.”
23
Q
Freud’s view on the unconscious
A
- The vast majority of our knowledge is stored in the unconscious
- It houses thoughts and memories that are too painful/disturbing for consciousness.
- We may repress painful thoughts and memories, preventing them from reaching consciousness
- Though, typically inaccessible, unconscious material can enter the preconscious or conscious accidentally or indirectly.
- Knowledge and memory in our unconscious maintains its ability to guide out behaviour: affect how we think, feel, relate to others.
- Those storing too many emotional memories/thoughts in the unconscious may develop psychological disorders.
- Psychoanalytic therapy attemps to bring unconscious material to consciousness
- His theory has minimal evidence.
24
Q
Humans and sleep
A
- Sleep is cruicial to our survival
- Humans sleep a lot
- On average 9hrs a day, 25 yrs in a lifetime.
25
Adaptive theory of sleep
* Sleep is the evolutionary outcome of self-preservation. Organisms sleep to avoid predators that are more active at night.
* Explains why we sleep at night
* Does not account for why people who work night shifts can function well as long as they get enough sleep regardless of when they sleep.
26
Restoration theory of sleep
* Sleep allows the brain and body to restore certain depleted chemicals, while eliminating chemical wastes that accumulate during the waking day.
* Sleep deprivation reduces immunre functioning and cardiovascular health.
* Grown hormone production increases during sleep in adults
27
Circadian rhythm
* Sleep occurs in rhythms
* Pattern of sleep-wake sycles in humans that roughly responds to periods of daylight/darkness.
* It is our biological clock
* Patterns of biological activity occur during the cycle
* Temperature rises in the morning, peaks midday, and dips in the early afternoon. Later in the afternoon it rises and peaks again, dropping as he approach full sleep
* Hormone secretion, pain sensitivity, and blood pressure also change.
* We are most alert during the late morning peak. Younger people tend to peak later than older people.
* The "clock" can be disrupted by long flights into different time zones, and in people irregularily working night shifts.
* It can be easily restored though
* Some are larks (morning people), and some are owls night people).
* May be explained by genetics along with age, sex, health. Every cell has its own circadian clock genes.
28
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
* A group of neurons in the hypothalamus responsible for coordinating the many rhythms of the body.
* It notices when daylight is present and directs the pineal gland to secrete the hormone melatonin.
* An increase in melatonin travelling through the blood to the organs triggers sleepiness.
* Production of melatonin is highest from 1-3am, in the morning production decreases and the sleeper wakes.
* Photoreceptors in eye have internal clock for light sensitivity. They communicate the presense of light to the SCN.
* Photoreceptors are also sensitive to artificial light. The invention of the lightbulb disrupted the human circadian rhythm by increasing the amount of light we were exposed to.
* Increased exposure to light has led to disruptions of the rhythm and has negative effects.
* Deprived access to environmental shifts in sunlight/darkness: SCN can increase "day" by 1hr to 25hrs.
* The normal rhythm can be restored easily/quickly usually.
29
Sleep cycle
* Every 90-100 minutes of the first half of sleep, we go through a sleep cycle consisting of 5 stages.
* In the latter half of sleep, most time is spent in stages 1 and 2, and REM sleep.
* Stages 1-4 are NREM sleep.
* Each stage was identified by examining brainwave patterns during sleep with an EEG. Each stage has a different brainwave pattern.
30
Hypnagogic stage
* Pre-sleep period
* Alpha-waves
* May experience strange sensations called hpynagogic hallucinations. (falling, floating, hearing sounds).
* myoclonic jerk: sharp muscular spasm usually accompaning the hypnagogic hallucination of falling.
31
Stage 1
* Waves are smaller and irregular
* Theta waves
* Lasts a few minutes
* The bridge between wakefullness and sleep
* Conscious awareness of some sensations fade away
* Can be easily roused from this state
* If rouse, we may recall having just had nonsensical ideas/thoughts
32
Stage 2
* Waves slow down further - theta waves
* May have sleep spindles: bursts of neural activity
* Breathing becomes steady and rhythmic
* General muscle relaxation. Ocassional muscle twitching
* Lasts 15-20 minutes
* Can be roused fairly easily
* Towards the end waves slow further, delta waves may appear
33
Stage 3
* 20-50% of waves are delta waves
* Deep sleep
34
Stage 4
* Mainly delta waves
* Heart rate, blood pressure, breath rate drops to lowest
* Muscles are most relaxed
* Most prone to sleep walking
* Sleeper is cut off from world
35
REM sleep (stage 5)
* Rapid and jagged brainwave patterns
* Increased HR, rapid and irregular breathing
* AKA paradoxical sleep: body remains paralyzed while brain activity is akin to normal awake functioning
* Genitals become aroused, in males may last beyong REM sleep
* Dreams occur almost always and are emotional/vivid
* Memories are consolidated during REM sleep
* All mammals experience
36
Dreams
* Emotional, story-like, sensory experiences that usually occur during REM sleep
* The can appear in NREm sleep, but are less emotionally charged and less vivid.
* They run in real time.
37
Information processing theory
* Cognitive view of dreaming
* Dreams are the mind's attempt to sort/organize day's experiences and fix/encode them into memory.
* Dreams can be a mental realm where we can solve problems and think creatively
* Studies show REM sleep disruption causes flaws in memory learned prior.
* Longer periods of REM sleep indicate a day full of high stress or learning.
38
Activation-synthesis hypothesis
* Biological view of dreaming
* As people sleep, they brains activate all kinds of random signals.
* Dreams reflect the brains attempt to combine/synthesize these signals and find their meaning.
* Neurons in the brainstem activate neurons in the cerebral cortex to produce visual and sensory signals.
* Cingulate cortex, amygdala, hippocampus activate emotion and arousal.
* Does not account for why different people synthesize their onslaught of brain signals in different waves.
39
Freud's dream theory
* Dreams represent the expressoin of unconscious wishes/desires/needs, and allow us to discharge internal energy associated with unacceptable feelings.
* Manifest content of dream: images of dream that are recalled
* Latent content of dream: the unconscious elements of the dream.
* Dream interpretation by psychoanalytic therapist who facilitates insight into the dreams meaning may help client appreaciate their underlying needs and conflicts with a goal of being less constrained by them when awake.
* Lack of evidence. Heavily criticized.
40
Nightmares
* Dream filled with intense anxiety
* Generally evokes feelings of helplessness or powerlessness.
* Can be enough to awaken sleeper
* Common in people who are stressed.
41
Nightmare or dream anxiety disorder
* People who frequently experience nightmares and are very distressed by them.
* More common in children than adults
42
Lucid dreams
* Dreams where people are fully aware that they are dremaing and may actively guide the outcomes of it.
* Feels like you are in a real life situation.
43
Day dreams
* Associated with waking states of consciousness
* Fantasies occuring while one is awake and mindful of external reality, but not fully conscious.
* Highly emotion, bizarre, altered sensory experiences reported.
* Can be strong enough to impede on perception of external reality.
44
Development of sleep pattern
* Babies sleep 14-17hrs a day. This declines steadily with age.
* Babies sleep periods can last from minutes to hours, this becomes structured at around 6 months
* Babies spend around 8hrs in REM sleep, adults spent around 2hrs in REM sleep.
* Level of REM sleep decreases to adult levels at 6 months
* Less REM sleep/deep sleep means sleep will be interrupted more often and may lead to psychological/physical issues.
45
Sleep deprivation
* If we could sleep for as long as we want, we would for 9-10 hrs
* We can easily bounce back from a day of slee loss
* Chronic sleep loss/deprivation causes: general depresses stats (which can in turn cause sleep deprivation), lowered immune system, lower concentration, higher propensity for accidents/making mistakes, lower productivity
* Common in adolescence. Causes less efficiency
* Good sleep lowers stress, time spent on tests, higher efficiency
46
Sleep disorders
* When normal patterns of sleep are disrupted.
* Causes impaired daytime functioning, feelings of distress,
* Almost everyone will suffer from one at one point
* May be part of a larger health problem, or a may be a primary sleep disorder (where sleep problem is central).
47
Insomnia
* Sleep disorder characterized by a regular inability to fall or stay asleep
* Most common sleep disorder
* Triggered by stress in job, school, relationships, finances, stress about not getting sleep.
* Common in older people due to medical ailments, medication, pain, depression/anxiety, stress (above), lack of deep/REM sleep - causes interruptions in cardiovascular disease and dimentia.
48
Sleep related breathing disorders
* Sleep apnea
* Second most common sleep disorder
* Person stops breathing at night, depriving the brain of oxygen causing waking.
* Brain may fail to send "breathe signal" to diaphragm, or muscles are too relaxed causing the airway to close
* Hundreds of episodes can occur in a night, lasting up to 30 seconds.
* Can lead to cardiac arrest as the heart is stressed
* Increased fatigue due to sleep loss
* Can be stopped using a positive flow ventilator
49
Central disorders of hypersomnolence
* Excessive daytime sleepiness
* Narcolepsy
50
Excessive daytime sleepiness
* Feeling drowsy/chronically tires after a good night of sleep
* Seen in those with sleep apnea, neurological disorders, metabolic disorders, depression and anxiety
* Correlated with accidents and poor performance during the day
51
Narcolepsy
* Uncontrollable urge to fall asleep
* Person may suddenly fall asleep/fall into REM sleep/consciousness during the day. May lose muscle tone during.
* Episodes can last up to 15 min
* May be genetic
* No cure yet
52
Circadian rhythm sleep wake disorders
* Delayed sleep phase syndrome
- long delay in ability to fall asleep when they wish to
- common in adolescence (16%) and young adults
- may contribute to insomnia
- causes daytime sleepiness, anxiety, and depression
- treated with cognitive behavioural therapy and bright light therapy
* Advanced sleep phase syndrome
- individuals fall asleep early in the evening (6-9pm), prior to desired sleep time, and wake up early in the morning than desired (2-5am).
- may be genetic
53
Sleep related movement disorders
* Restless leg syndrome (RLS)
* Periodic limb movements of sleep (PLMS)
* Strong urge to move legs, usually in the evening prior and during sleep.
* Legs are uncomfy - pins and needles, crawling feeling.
* Feelings may go away in the morning and come back at night
* Cause is likely abnormalities in dopamine production.
54
Parasomnias
* Sleep walking
* Night terrors
* REM sleep behaviour disorder
55
Sleep walking
* Most often in first 3 hours of sleep
* Sleeper eventually returns to sleep
* If woken up during, they wake in a confused state
* Genetically inherited
56
Night Terrors
* Person awakens suddenly, sits up in bed screaming in fear, with heightened HR and breathing rate.
* Common in kids, resolved by adolescence
* May be genetic - kids with parents that sleepwalk.
* Occurs mostly in stages 3 and 4.
57
REM sleep behaviour
* Acting out a dream whilre sleeping
58
Hypnosis
* Altered state of consciousness
* Individuals can be directed to act of experience the world in unusual ways
* Process involves relinquishment of control of certain behaviours and their acceptant of distortions od reality - openness
* Hypnotist may ask patient to focus on a small target on a wall, or they will induce a hyperalert hpynotic trance that guides the individuals to heightened tension and awareness.
* Posthypnotic responses
* Posthypnotic amnesia
* Hypnotic hallucinations
59
Posthypnotic responses
* Behaviour that was suggested while the person was hypnotized, but that is engaged later, posthypnotic state, when a specific sign is observed.
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Posthypnotic amnesia
* Hypnotist directs the individual to later forget information learned during hypnosis. When roused, the person does not remember the unlearned material, until the hypnotist provides a predetermined signal to remember.
61
Hypnotic hallucinations
* Mental perceptions that do not match the physical stimulation coming from the natural world around us,
* 2 types: positive and negative
- positive: those in which people are guided to see objects or hear sounds that are not present.
- negative: often used to control pain. individual is guided to ignore - not perceive - in partial or in whole, pain.
- results in decreased activity in the cingulate cortex.
62
Divided consciousness theory
* Suggests that during hypnosis, the consciousness is split into 2 part that are acting at the same time.
* The split of the consciousness is "dissociation"
* One part of consciousness is fully tuned in to and responsive to suggestions
* Other part (Hidden observer) operates at a subtler, less conscious level that continues to process information that is seemingly unavailable to the hypnotized person.
63
Social/cognitive process theory
* Claims hypnosis is not an altered state of consciousness
* Hypnotic phenomena consists of highly-motivated individuals who have a strong belief in hypnosis, performing tasks, being extra attentative, and enacting toles that are asked of them.
* A social internation between the hypnotist and audience
* People fail to recognize their own active contribution to the process when they strongly believe in it.
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The brain during hypnosis
* First, individuals are guided into a state of mental relaxation, where neural activity in the thalamus and cerebral cortex declines
* Second, individuals are guided into a state of mental absorption where they focus on hypnotists voice and block out stimulation. Neural activity in thalamus and cerebral cortex heightens.
* When hypnotism is used to inhibit pain, the activity in the cingulate cortex decreases, while other areas responsive to pain funtion as normal. This suggest the cingulate cortex is involved in the awareness of pain.
65
Psychoactive drugs
* Chemicals that affect awareness, behaviour, sensaition, perception, or mood.
* Some develop addictions, tolerance to drugs, and withdrawals when they stop using them.
* Includes depressants, stimulants, opiates, hallucinogens.
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Depressants
* Class of drugs that lower/slow the activity of the CNS
* Lower's the neurotransmission of neurotransmitters
* Reduces tension and inhibition
* May interfere wwith judgement, motor activity, concentration,
* ex. Alcohol, sedative hypnotic drugs.
67
Alcohol
* Most commonly used depressant
* decreases the activity of GABA neurons by upregulating the presense of it.
* Judgement and inhibition is inhibited
* Carelessness, memory issues, heightened emotion, declined motor reponses.
68
Sedative-hypnotic drugs
* (Benzodiazepines)
* At low doses, causes relaxation and drowsiness, relief of anxiety
* At higher doses, induces sleep and hypnotics
* Increased risk of memory impairment, and dementia
* Xanax, Ativan, Valium
69
Opioids
* Derived from the sac of the opium poppy
* Activates opioid receptors in the brain, providing an analgesic (pain-relieving) effect and a relating high.
* Used traditionally to treat medical disorders
* Causes rush, spasm of warmth, joy, reduces pain, emotional tension, produces pleasure, and calming feelings.
* Heroin, morphine, codeine, OxyContin
70
Stimulants
* Substances increasing the activity of the CNS
* Causes increase in blood pressure, HR, alertness, thinking, behaviour
* Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines.
71
Cocaine
* Increases energy, alertness, and awareness
* Brings rush of euphoria and well-being, excitement, energy.
* Causes increase in blood pressire, HR, breathing, arousal, wakefulness
* Increases activity of dopamine releasing neurons.
* Negatively impacts memory, attention, decision making
72
Amphetamines
* Synthetic drug
* Small doses cause an increase in energy, alertness, and a reduction in appetite
* Larger doses cause intoxication and psychosis
* Methamphetamines (crystal meth), MDMA, Adderall, etc.
73
Hallucinogens
* Psychedelic drugs
* Dramatically changes one's state of awareness by cauging powerful changes in sensory perception - trips
* LSD, mushrooms, mescaline, phenyckudune, ketamine, N, N-dimeth
74
LSD
* Brings on hallucinosis
* Dramatic strengthening of visual perception, profound physical and psychological changes (strong emotions)
* Causes illusions and distortions of objects.
* Binds to receptors w/ serotonin
* Flashbacks: reoccurance of sensory/emotional changes after LSD wears off
75
Cannabis
* Depressant, stimulate, or hallucinogen depending on the user's experience.
* "High"
* In low doses, causes relaxation, happiness, or anxiety and irritation in some
* Causes sharpened perceptions, time slows down, distances become greater
* Can produce hallucinations.
76
Effect of drugs on the brain
* Increased activity of specific neurotransmitters.
* Each activates a single reward learning or pleasure pathway
* Reward learning pathway: pathway in brain activated by pleasurable stimuli or events and comes to anticipate/learn them. - directly stimulated by drugs
- extends from midbrain to nucleus accumbens and to the frontal cortex.
- Key neurotransmitter: dopamine
* Reward deficiency syndrome: theory that when usual life events do not properly affect the reward learning pathway, one is more succeptible to drugs and addiction. - may be genetic.
77
Motivation
* Comes from the word "motare" - to shake/stir/move with purpose
* Condition or internal process that directs behaviours
- behaviour is the consequence of a combination of several motives.
- motives: needs or desires
78
Theories of motivation
* Instinct theory
* Drive-reduction theory
* Arousal theory
* Incentive theory
* Hierarchy of needs
79
Instinct theory
* Behaviours originate from a set of behavioural blueprints or instincts.
- instincts: inborn behavioural tendencies, activated by stimuli in our environment.
* Many of our basic motives are inborn and persist throughout our whole lives.
- Humans are naturally motivated to eat: range of foods considered rewarding change throughout life, but the motivation to eat persists throughout life.
- Humans are naturally motivated to form social contacts: babies are borm with sense of smell that lets them recognize their mother. They also engage in primitive social behaviour (smiling, laughing, etc.).
* The nuances of basic motives change with life, but the motivation to do the particular act persists throughout life.
* Explains some human behaviour and much of animal behaviour, but not all - even in simple creatures (rats).
* Can not explain difference among individuals (ex. some seek experiences that others avoid - drinking, exercise)
* Does not explain the idea of voluntary decision making as a part of motivation - we can override our physiological motivational processes simply because we want to.
80
Drive-reduction theory
* Based on homeostasis: the general tendency of the body to maintain itself in a state of balance or equilibrium.
* When external factors alter the state of equilibrium, a motivation arises to restore it.
* Explains behaviours related to biological needs
* We do however engage in many behaviours that don't appear to be motivated by a need to maintain equilibrium - and some that aim to throw it off.
* Does not explain the idea of voluntary decision making as a part of motivation - we can override our physiological motivational processes simply because we want to.
* Biological need arises -- Need gives rise to drive -- Organism is motivated to satisfy drive -- Action taken -- Balance is restored.
81
Arousal theory
* Motivation comes from a need to achieve an appropriate or desired level of arousal.
* Some may be underaroused and want to maximize their level. (soldiers returning from war)
* Explains several behaviours that instinct and drive-reduction theory can't.
- ex. curiosity often motivates us to seek information even if no other goal is involved - just to increase arousal.
* Arousal can affect task-performance
- Yerkes-Dodson law
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Yerkes-Dodson law
* Ideal task performance occurs when the difficulty of the task is inversely related to our level of arousal
* Complex tasks are performed better with lower arousal levels
- complex tasks require more concentration, which can be disrupted with high arousal.
* Boring/simple tasks are performed better with mid to high arousal levels.
- we may need to increase arousal with snacks, music, breaks.
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Incentive theory
* Some behaviours are intrinsically motivating, and some are extrinsically motivating
* Intrinsic motivation: engaging in a behaviour simply because doing it it satisfying/pleasurable.
* Extrinsic motivation: engaging in a behaviour due to the influence of factors outside ourselves (incentives).
* incentives: external motives that indirectly indicate reward. they play a major role in most behaviour.
* Brain regions involved in dopamine and opiate release are activated during pleasurable or likeable experiences and may direct further behaviour.
- dopamine is present in 2 brain areas: substansia nigra (movement/Parkinson's), ventral tegmental area.
- Dopamine pathway: venral tegmental area -- nucleus accumbens & prefrontal cortex. (critical in liking and wanting)
* Incentive theory does not explain behaviour that is not motivated by wanting a reward or avoiding a punishment.
84
Incentives
* incentives: external motives that indirectly indicate reward. they play a major role in most behaviour.
*2 types: either rewarding or punitive
- primary: innate rewards or punishments, we dont have to like or dislike them. Have adaptive/evolutionary components. Stimuli that increase survival are rewarding, those that threaten it are punitive.
- secondary: cues that are viewes as rewarding as a result of learning about their association with other events.
* Incentive salience: how important a particular incentive is to us. everyone is different.
- incentives can become more motivating when associated with specific emotions.
* Brain regions involved in dopamine and opiate release are activated during pleasurable or likeable experiences and may direct further behaviour.
- dopamine is present in 2 brain areas: substansia nigra (movement/Parkinson's), ventral tegmental area.
- Dopamine pathway: venral tegmental area -- nucleus accumbens & prefrontal cortex.
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Hierarchy of needs
* A combination of motives interact and compete to drive innate and learned behaviour.
* The strength of certain motivations and there ability to supersede one other led Maslow to describe them hierarchicaly.
* Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
> Physiological needs: basic survival needs.
> Safety needs: need to feel secure/safe/stable.
> Belonging and love needs: need to feel loved or belong. Motivates us to seek companionship.
> Esteem needs: need to feel self-worth. Motivates us to achieve things.
> Self-actualization needs: need to fulfill our full potential. Self-less, altruistic behaviour.Cannot occur if needs below are not satisfied.
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Thirst
* Biological motivation
* During the day we lose water, which is critical for our survival and functioning
2 mechanisms that motivate our need for water:
- Need to maintain volume of water
- Need to maintain ion-to-water balance in cells
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Hunger
* Biological motivation
* Motivated by empty stomach, levels of nutrients in bloodstream (gastrointestinal)
* Levels of glucose (blood sugar), lipids, and leptin (released from growing fat - indicates to stop eating if too much)
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Brain's involvement in thirst and hunger
* Lateral hypothalamus (LH): responsible for signalling hunger and thirst
* Ventromedial region of the hypothalamus (VMH): signals satiety (fullness) - stretch receptors
- important in modulating levels of insulin
- Prader-Willi syndrome: dysfunction in hypothalamus, causes overeating
* Dual-centre theory of motivation/ activity in one of these areas serves to inhibit the area that serves the opposite function
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Body-weight set point
* Something we all have: a set weight that indviduals typically bounce back to after dieting or overeating.
* Only permanent changes in eating and excersise habits can override this set point.
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Hunger/eating disorders
* Obesity
* Anorexia Nervosa
* Bullimia Nervosa
* Binge-eating disorder
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Obesity
* Being extremely overweight (BMI of 30 or greater)
* Causes: genetics, environmental factors, social factors.
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Anorexia Nervosa
* Eating disorder where individuals under-eat and have a distorted body image of being overweight
* Characterized by extreme weightloss and dieting
* Most prevalent in areas where food is prevalent and social pressures exist for people to be thin, and in women (1 in 300)
* Treatment: family therapy, behavioural-cognitive therapy, hospitalization, nutritional counselling.
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Bullimia nervosa
* Eating disorder where individuals consume excessive calories and try to get rid of them to they do not contribute to weight gain.
* May cause dental and health problems, does not have to result in weightloss.
* People are often secretive and ashamed of binge-purge behaviour.
* Associated with OCD, anxiety, depression, self-harm.
* Treatment: behaviour odification, rewarding healthy beahviours, cognitive therapy, developing healthier relationship with self and food, atidepressants/drugs
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Binge eating disorder
* Out of control eating of large amounts of food several times a week, over months of years.
* Results in psychological/emotional distress, loss of control over food, inability to stop eating.
* Eating is done secretively, with self-loathing, shameful feelings.
* More common in women and obese people
* Treatment: Cognitive-behavioural therapy, antidepressants.
95
Mate choice
* BIological motivation
* We need to find a mate and reproduce to survive as a species.
* Animals desire certain qualities in a mate, based on perception of their fitness to reproduce,
- influenced by physiological factors, behaviour, resources. (hip-to-waist ratio, symmetry, money, behaviour, ability to reproduce)
96
Sex
* Biological motivation
* Evolutionary value, though most of the time sex is not for the purpose of procreation.
- influenced by biology (evolution), social factors, cultural factors (choice, number of sexual partners, practices, what is acceptable/taboo, etc.)
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Physiological factors of sex
4 stages of physical human sexual response:
1. Excitement: can last hours, increase in HR, beginning of arousal
2. Plateau: Increase in HR, breathing rate, muscle tension, flush across chest
3. Orgasm: muslce tension and blood pressure peaks, climax occurs (muscle contractions).
4. Resolution: muscles relay, HR lowers. Men have a refractory period, women do not.
- this process varies more with women.
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Neurological factors of sex
* Hormones
- men: androgen (adrenal glands, testes)
- women: estrogen, progesterone, androgen. (ovaries, adrenal gland)
* Looking at a photo of a romantic partner activates the ventral tegmental area (VTA), even when sex is not involved.
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Gender differences in sexuality
* Men: look for a youthful, atttractive female which indicates reproductive success
* Female: look for a strong, dependable man, which indicates they can care and protect their children.
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Sexual orientation
* One's relative attraction to individuals of varied genders; contains 4 phenomena;
1. sexual behaviour: the range of sexual behaviours one acts in and who they do so with
2. sexual identity: how a person thinks of themselves, and their sexual orientation to themselves.
3. sexual attraction: studying who a person is attracted to.
4. sexual arousal: extent to which person is sexually aroused by erotic stimuli that includes individuals of different genders.
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Unconscious/Conscious motivation
* Conscious motivations: motivations that people are aware of and can verbalize.
* Unconscious motivations motivations that people are unaware of and cannot
verbalize.
* Unconscious motivations are hard to test, they use two seriously flawed tests, TAT and IAT, to try to tap into unconscious motivations.
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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)st
* Asks person to describe an ambigious scene.
* It gives psyhologists a window to see how they view the world and what their unconscious motivaitons might be.
* Controversial and flawed. There is no validity to this test
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Implicit Association Test (IAT)
* Asks people to associate two things together, usually an object and an emotional or moral judgement.
* Claim that associations to objects gives insight into their unconscious thoughts and motivation.
* Used to test unconscious biases to races
* Controversial, flawed.
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Hedonistic principle
* Principle that we engage in behaviour to avoid pain and to maximize pleasure
* 2 contrubtors to this principle: avoidance motivations and approach motivations.
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Avoidance/approach motivations
* Avoidance motivations: the desire to avoid an experience that will result in a negative outcome
* Approach motivations: the desire to approach experiences that will result in a postivie outcome.
- preferred way to achieve goals - secondary incentives are awarded when using this strategy.
- often have higher well-being
* The flexibility to use both of these when trying to reach a goal is important
* A lack of experience using avoidance motivation may lead to a struggle in the ability to cope with environmental challenges.
* Loss aversion
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Loss aversion
* A tendency to be motivated more strongly to avoid a loss rather than to achieve a gain, even if the gain and loss or of equal size.
* We are find it more aversive to lose something than pleasurable to achieve gain something.
* Neurotransmitter system s of dopamine and norepinephrine are relateded (amygdala, basal ganglia, prefrontal cortex).
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Amotivation
* without motivation
* Fueled by a lack of competence, autonomy, relatedness
* Higher in adolescence - decreases with age and through progression into higher education.
* Associated with schizophrenia and depression
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Fixed vs Growth mindset
* Fixed mindset: belief that talent is inate and that skill in a particular area is not determined by hard work/effort
* Growth mindset: belief that hardwork and effort can improve a person's skill in a particular area.
- Grit: long-term perseverance toward a goal
* connections between nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex seem to be responsible for growth motivation and grit.
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Affiliation
* Just as important to biological needs .
* The need to form social attatchments for support, guidance, and protection
* Benefits: need for connection starts from birt, raises self-esteem, less depression, people in healthy relationships live longer.
* Disadvantages: people may stay in abusive relationships ot join gangs to feel belonging, when we feel excluded the anterior cinculate cortex is stimulated and we may feel physical pain, long-term isolation can lead to permanent psychological damage, motive to affiliate is a reason why politics are so polarized.
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Achievement
* Self-determination theory: instinctive feelings of relatedness, autonomy, and competenct give people purpose to life.
- incentives play a role in achievement (intrinsic or extrinsic).
- when incentivees are involved, things turn into competitions
- those that focus too much on rewards may respond negatively to failure - intrinsic motivation provides more well-being.
* Delaying gratification:
- social motivations are learned, we must learn the value of rewards and learn to control impulses to work towards long-term goals
- the development of the prefrontal cortex is necessary to comprehend and develop long-term goals. (Developed after puberty).
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Emotion and its components
* Emotion: an individual state that occurs in reponse to either an external or internal event and that typically involves four separate but intertwined components.
* physiological: changes in bodily arousal (incr HR, temperature, breathing)
* cognitive/feeling: subjective appraisal and interpretation individual's feelings and surrounding environment
* physical, behavioural: expression of emotion verbally or non-verbally.
* emotional, behavioural: keeping the particular emotion present or removing it
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Physiological component
* The bodily arousal felt during the experience of a particular emotion.
* Produced by ANS
* Number and intensity of biological changes depends on the nature of the situation.
* i.e. increased HR, breathing, pupil dilation, blood pressure.
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Cognitive component
* The evaluative thoughts people have about their emotional experience and the appraisal of the events that are producing the emotions.
* Interpretation and evaluation of the situation and emotion
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Physical Behavioural component
* Expression of emotion through body language
* We can accurately identify the faccial expressions associated with 6 fundamental emotions: anger, happines, surprise, fear, disguist. - genetically programed.
* verbal expression: we are likely to frequently share emotional experiences.
* alexithymia: difficulty in processing emotions.
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Emotional behavioural component
* Desire to take action to maintain or change a particular emotional state.
* Motivator of behaviour
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How is emotion measured?
- behvaioural displays of emotion
- self reports - inaccurate, does not provide whole concept
- psychophysiological reactions (heart rate, skin conduction, face electromyography, fMRI)
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Functions of emotion
- behavioural: emotion influences behaviour. action tendencies: emotions that are associated with predictable patterns of behaviour that help us to survive and adapt in our social and physical environment.
- social: emotion builds and maintains relationships
- cognitive: helps us sort/organize information. memories with emotion are better learned.
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Theories of emotion
* James-Lange theory
* Cannon-Bard theory
* Schater and singer's two factor theory
* Cognitive-mediational theory
* Facial-feedback theory
* Evolution theory
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James-Lange theory
* an event triggers emotion, which results in physicological changes, and behavioural responses to the situation.
* The physiological change is what makes us feel a particular emotion
* No emotional experience unless there is a physiological component
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Cannon-Bard theory
* The subjective experience of an emotion occurs simutaneously to the activation of the SNS (physiological component - bodily arousal)
* When we perceive an emotional evel, the thalamus relays information to the SNS and areas of thought and decision making simutaneously.
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Schacshter and Singer's two factor theory
* Our cognition determines whether the state of physiological arousal will be labeled as 'anger' or 'joy' or whatever.
* Although physical arousal is necessary for emotion to occur, our cognitive facilities determine what that specific emotional state is.
* Emotional state requires both physiology and cognition.
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Cognitive-mediational theory
* Cognitive interpretations - appraisal affects how people interpret physical arousal and the lesl of arousal itself.
* Cognitive appraisal is a mediator between environmental stimuli and our reactions to those stimuli.
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Facial-feedback theory
* Our subjective experiences of emotion are influences by sensory feedback we reveive from the activity of our facial muscles - facial efference (sendory feedback from facial-muscular activity.
* Facial expression does not only express emotion, it intensifies the physiological experience of that emotion.
* Duschenne smile: smiles reflecting genuine emotion involve the activity of certain muscles near the moth and eyes, whereas social smiles involve certain muscles near the mouth.
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Evolutionary theory
Emotions are innate and passed through generations because they are necesarry for survival - communicative function.
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Brain's role in emotion
Key areas: medical parietal lobes, medial prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, temportal lobe.
* No single structure of the brain linked to any specific emotions. Rather, it is the activation of the circuitry between these structures, in addition to the structures themselves, that is critical for our conscious experience of an emotion.
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Positive psychology
Positive psychology is the study and enrichment of:
* Positive feelings – happiness, optimism
* Positive traits – perseverance, wisdom
* Positive abilities – interpersonal skills
* Virtues – altruism, tolerance
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Happy people tend to be:
* Optimistic, outgoing, curious, and tender-minded
* Individuals with high self-esteem, spiritual, goal directed, have
a sense of control over their lives
Longitudinal study
* Highly optimistic people had a 55% reduced risk of death and a 23% reduced risk of heart problems
