Final Exam Flashcards
Study Guide
1
Q
“One-Drop” Rule
A
A socially constructed belief that classifies anyone with any amount of Black ancestry as Black.
2
Q
Hypodescent
A
The practice of classifying a person of mixed racial ancestry as belonging to a more socially marginalized group. (i.e., the more mixed, the lower in the “racial hierarchy”)
3
Q
Blumenbach’s Racial Taxonomy (1775)
A
Blumenbach divided humanity into five “varieties” or “races.” His classification was based on skull shape/ size.
- Caucasian (Europeans, North Africans, and West Asians): “ideal” human form, he believed humanity came from the Caucus region.Associated with light skin and symmetrical skull features.
- Mongolian (East Asians and Central Asians): Described as having yellowish skin tones
- Ethiopian (Sub-Saharan Africans): Characterized by darker skin, curly hair
- American (Indigenous peoples of the Americas): Described as having reddish skin tones
- Malayan (Southeast Asians and Pacific Islanders): Identified as having brownish skin tones
4
Q
Biological Basis to Race
A
The debunked idea is that race has a genetic or biological foundation, i.e., pseudoscience
5
Q
Phenotype
A
Observable traits like hair texture and color, facial features, and body proportions.
Note: Most traits used to define “racial phenotypes” (e.g., skin color) exist on a spectrum and overlap significantly across populations.
6
Q
Common Understanding of Race and Ethinicity
A
Socially constructed categories used to identify and classify individuals based on cultural and physical characteristics.
7
Q
Ideology
A
A system of social or political ideals which are treated as common sense.
8
Q
Essentialism
A
A stereotype/generalization about inherent similarities/ differences between groups.
9
Q
Social Construct
A
A social construct is an idea or concept that is created and maintained by societal agreement rather than being rooted in objective, natural, or biological reality.
10
Q
Injurious Speech
A
Injurious speech refers to language that causes harm to individuals or groups, often by targeting their identity, dignity, or social standing.
Ex.) hate speech, defamation, discriminatory slurs, bullying, etc.
11
Q
Indexical Bleaching
A
Indexical bleaching is a semiotic process that weakens the connection between a linguistic form and its social meaning.
Ex.) Replacing someone’s name with an English one or mispronouncing it intentionally.
12
Q
Performativity
A
A concept in linguistics and social theory refers to how language communicates and acts, producing effects or enacting identities, particularly in the context of race and ethnicity.
Note: Felicity Conditions or “Speech acts”
13
Q
Linguistic Symbols of American Identity
A
Words, phrases, or linguistic patterns associated with and used to signify American cultural or national identity.
ex.) Pledge of Allegiance, National Anthem, national holidays, etc.
14
Q
Americanization Campaign
A
Historical efforts, governmental or institutional, aimed at assimilating immigrants into American culture, often by enforcing English language use.
Ex.) Americanization schools
15
Q
Citizenship Test Vocabulary Examples
A
Words or phrases emphasized in U.S. citizenship tests reflect knowledge of the American government, culture, and history.
ex.) Names of presidents, holidays, patriotic phrases, etc.
16
Q
Official Language
A
A language designated by a country’s government as the primary medium for laws, administration, and public life.
Note: The US has no official language
17
Q
Accent (Prosody, Segments)
A
Accent: A pronunciation specific to a particular individual, region, or social group.
Prosody: The rhythm, stress, pitch, and intonation
Segments: Vowels and consonants
18
Q
Linguistic Profiling
A
Judging someone’s background, ethnicity, or social class based on their speech patterns or accent.
19
Q
Baugh’s Housing Discrimination Study
A
A study by linguist John Baugh demonstrates how people face housing discrimination based on their speech or perceived accent over the phone.
Method: Baugh called 3 times to each housing place, 1 time with a different accent, and saw how much speech it took for them to dialect discriminate.
20
Q
Accent Hallucination
A
The phenomenon where listeners believe they hear an accent even when one is not present.
21
Q
McGurk Effect
A
What we see overrides what we hear.
Ex.) Lip movements affect what we hear, demonstrating how vision influences auditory perception.
22
Q
Rubin’s Study: Nonnative English-speaking Teaching Assistants
A
The study showed that students’ perceptions of teaching assistants’ accents and abilities were influenced by stereotypes, often unrelated to actual linguistic proficiency.
Method: Rated TAs of different ethnicities on quality, accent, and student comprehension, including accent ratings and a background questionnaire for the second study.
23
Q
Codeswitching
A
Code-switching refers to the practice of alternating between two or more languages or dialects of speech within a conversation.
24
Q
Situational Codeswitching
A
Situational code-switching refers to the practice of switching between languages, dialects, or registers based on the specific social context or situation.
Ex.) Switching between languages suitable for work and home environments.
25
Conversational Codeswitching
Conversational code-switching refers to the practice of switching between languages, dialects, or registers within a single conversation.
Ex.) Bilingual speakers start a conversation in English but switch to Spanish to express something that feels more natural in that language before returning to English.
26
"We-code" v. "They-code"
"We-code" is used within a group to strengthen identity, while "they-code" serves to establish boundaries and differentiate one group from another.
27
Intersentential Codeswitching
Intersentential code-switching refers to the practice of switching between languages or dialects between two separate sentences.
Ex.) "I was talking to my friend yesterday. Me dijo que iba a la fiesta."
28
Intrasentential Codeswitching
Intrasentential code-switching refers to the practice of switching between languages or dialects within a single sentence.
Ex.) "I was really tired, pero no podía dormir."
29
Tag-switching
Tag-switching refers to a type of code-switching in which a speaker inserts a word or phrase from one language into a sentence or conversation in another language.
Ex.) "No sé qué hacer, right?"
30
HHNL: Rap v. Hip-Hop
Rap is a style of music that is PART of hip-hop culture, while Hip-Hop refers to lifestyle.
I.e., all rap is hip-hop, but not all hip-hop is rap
31
HHNL: Call and Response
A technique that acts like a conversation in music.
Caller: "Say ho!"
Response: "Ho!"
Ex.) Rapper's Delight
32
Linguistic Discrimination: Four Types
Explicit: Conscious preference that is openly expressed
Implicit: Unconscious preference with immediate reaction
Intended: Purposeful discrimination against certain speakers
Unintended: Unintentional discrimination against certain speakers
33
Linguistic Discrimination: Historical Examples in the US
1. Indian boarding School (1819-1970s)
2. Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative (2021)
3. Americanization Schools
4. Literacy Tests and English-Only Elections
34
Pidgins and Creoles: Origin
Pidgins and Creoles are languages formed when people who don't share a language need to communicate, often with one dominant language and elements from others.
Pidgin: A simplified language combining features from other languages, not a native language, and seen as an early stage in creating a Creole.
Creoles: Fully developed languages that arise from pidgins when children adopt the pidgin as their native language. They are influenced by both the dominant and local languages.
35
Pidgins and Creoles: Lexifier v. Substrate
Lexifier (or Superstrate) Language:
- Supplies most of the vocabulary
- Common lexifiers include Malay, Portuguese, Dutch, French, Spanish, and English
- Higher in the social hierarchy and more prestigious
- Often the colonizer's language
Substrate Language:
- Influences the grammatical structure
- Lower in the social hierarchy and less prestigious
- Often the colonized language
36
Pidgins and Creoles: Examples
Pidgins:
1. Nauru Pidgin English
- English, Melanesian pidgins, Chinese pidgins
2. Juba Arabic
- Sudanese Arabic, Dinka, and other local languages
Creoles:
1. Hawaiian Pidgin
- American English, Portuguese, Hawaiian, and Cantonese
2. Tok Pisin
- Australian English, Melanesian languages
3. Haitian Creole
- French, Fongbe, Igbo
37
Pidgins and Creoles: Differences and Similarities
Differences:
Pidgins:
- Used for limited purposes and often have a short lifespan.
- Simpler structure, with fewer words, categories, and verb forms.
Creoles:
- Have a larger vocabulary and more complex grammar.
- Used for many different functions.
- Can be a person's first language.
Summary:
Pidgin → Creole Evolution: A pidgin becomes a creole when it gains native speakers and expands in complexity.
Key Distinction: A pidgin is a temporary and auxiliary language, while a creole is a fully functional language passed down generationally.
38
Dual language Immersions
1. Curricular content is in TWO languages
2. Strengthens the education of native speakers
3. Promotes bilingualism and biliteracy
39
Bilingual Education: Transitional Bilingual Education v. Maintenance Bilingual Education
Transitional Bilingual Education: Focuses on transitioning students from their native language to the dominant language.
Goal: Students ultimately learn and succeed in the dominant language, phasing out the native language.
Maintenance Bilingual Education: Aims to develop and maintain proficiency in both the native language and the dominant language.
Goal: Achieve bilingualism and biliteracy while preserving the student’s cultural heritage.
40
Irish Americans: Chain Migration
Chain Migration is when immigrants follow family or community members who have already moved to the U.S.
Irish immigrants often helped relatives or neighbors migrate by offering money or advice on settling in the U.S.
Impact: This created strong Irish communities in cities like New York, Boston, and Chicago, with networks that helped new immigrants adjust to life in America.
41
Irish Americans: Settlement in 1st and 2nd Waves
1. (1700s) Irish immigrants settled in farming areas like Virginia, Pennsylvania, and the Carolinas.
Many were Protestant and came as indentured servants, seeking better opportunities and escaping poverty and political unrest in Ireland.
2. (1800s) Great Irish Famine, when many Irish people left due to starvation and hardship. Most were Catholic and moved to cities like New York, Boston, and Philadelphia to work in factories and construction.
42
Irish Americans: Irish Gaelic
Origins: Comes from Proto-Indo-European
- One of the six Celtic languages
- Part of the Goidelic group.
Speakers: 1.7 million in Ireland and 18,000+ in the US
Features:
- Uses VSO word order
- Has grammatical gender
- Has initial consonant mutation (changing the first consonant of a word)
- Can seem nonsensical compared to English.
Endangerment:
(16th century) Began to decline with the English occupation of Ireland.
(19th century) Further decline due to historical events.
- Now spoken in the Gaeltacht regions of Ireland.
Revitalization: Irish is a required subject in schools in Ireland.
43
Navajo (Morphological Features)
1. SOV and OSV word order
2. Noun order is based on “strength”
3. Noun categories include human, animal, and inanimate object
4. Noun order ranked
5. Verb heavy
6. Single verbs can translate into dull sentences in English
7. Similar to agglutinative (affix carries a single, clear meaning) and fusional languages (affixes may express multiple grammatical meanings)
44
Indigenous American Languages: Top 3 Languages with Most Number of Speakers
Navajo, Cherokee, Dakota (Sioux)
45
Indigenous American Languages
65% of Native North American language speakers live in Alaska, Arizona, and New Mexico
46
Language Loss: Revitalization of Navajo, Māori, and Welsh
Navajo:
1. Major efforts to revitalize the language include school programs and immersion schools.
2. The Administration for Native Americans provides grants to native communities to reverse language loss.
Māori:
1. 1987 Māori Language Act: Made Māori an official language of New Zealand and established the Māori Language Commission.
2. Kura Kaupapa Māori: Immersion schools that help teach the language.
3. The Māori language is now featured on public signage.
4. 2018-2021: The percentage of Māori speakers increased from 24% to 30% and 34% of Māori speakers are fluent in Te Reo Māori.
Welsh:
1. Cymraeg 2050: A long-term plan for language revitalization.
2. Welsh-medium education is a key focus.
3. The focus has shifted from reversing the decline to maintaining the language.
4. Important legislation has been passed to protect Welsh, which is now given equal status with English.
47
Language Brokering
Translating or interpreting between languages for others, usually in informal settings. Commonly involves children or young adults who help their immigrant families.
48
Language Brokering: Where does this commonly occur?
Any space where non-fluent speakers need assistance navigating systems or services in a language they don't fully understand: at home, in schools, at doctor's offices, government offices, banks, etc.
49
Linguistic Experiences of Black Students at PWIs
1. African American classes are referred to as "Black classes."
2. Predominantly African American spaces where AAVE can be used freely without fear of stigmatization or discrimination.
3. Adopting a "mask" outside of these supportive community spaces.
50
Language and Race Beyond the US: Elite Transnational v. Defective Korean American
51
Markedness of Ethnoracial Labels
Unmarked categories: These are the "default" racial identities, like "White" in the U.S. It’s the group that doesn’t need to be specified, as it’s considered the norm.
Marked categories: These are racial identities that stand out from the norm, like "Black," "Latino," or "Asian." These terms are used when specifically referring to people who are not in the "unmarked" group.
52
Linguistic Correlates of Whiteness
Hypercorrect grammar, neutral accent (Midwestern), politeness, linguistic appropriation (trendy language).
53
Markedness of US Multilingualism
Multilingualism in the US is marked by admiration, envy, and feelings of superiority that many multilingualisms are not ‘native’ to this culture (Immigrants, visitors, children of ‘mixed’ ancestry/parents)
Note: Bilingual language acquisition
54
Types of Bilingualism
Active: through speaking, writing, or signing
Receptive: through listening, reading, or perceiving
Simultaneous: more than one language from birth
Sequential: Young children develop one language initially, then acquire a second language later.
Second Language Acquisition: Language acquired later in life.
55
Functions of Codeswitching
1. Clarify Ideas: Switching languages to explain something more clearly.
2. To Show Belonging: Speaking in a specific language or dialect to show you’re part of a group.
3. Create Bonds: Building stronger relationships by speaking a language both people are comfortable with.
3. Highlight a Point: Switching languages to make something stand out.
4. Cultural Pride: Using words or phrases tied to your culture.
5. Handle Difficult Words: Using another language when it’s easier to express an idea.
.
6. Adapt to the Setting: Using one language at home and another at work or school.
56
Race Talk
Talk in which ethnoracial categories, groups, practices, and/or ideologies are the overt topic of the discussion.
Examples of race talk:
1. Discussions of one’s own or others' ethnoracial identity
2. Narratives of ethnoracial conflict
3. Discussions of one’s own or other’s ethnoracial attitudes
4. Overtly racist talk
57
"Real Racism" v. Structural/ Institutional Racism
Real Racism: Explicit bias by individuals or institutions favoring certain ethnic groups.
Linguistic: Racist statements, slurs, and hateful language.
Non-linguistic: Discriminatory laws or policies (e.g., Jim Crow, slavery).
Structural Racism: Systemic bias in social structures that advantages some groups over others, often without explicit intent.
Linguistic: Favoring Standard American English (SAE) in institutions or discussions about race.
Non-linguistic: Inequalities in politics, economy, education, and healthcare.
58
Colorblindness
The belief or practice of ignoring racial and ethnic differences to treat everyone as if race does not matter and denies the relevance of race in shaping experiences or systemic inequalities.
Ex.) Claiming race shouldn't be discussed because it "divides people."
59
Colormuteness
The deliberate avoidance of discussing race, even when it is relevant or necessary, to avoid discomfort or conflict.
Ex.) Schools avoid discussions of racial injustice in history classes.
60
Racial Erasure
Avoidance of ethnoracial terms in contexts where they are salient.
Ex.) Use of circumlocution (Talking around the topic), using vague reference term
Ex.) “The people who are most different from me.”
61
Racial Delaying
Postponing the mention of race and ethnicity until later in one’s talk which displays race as an afterthought or as not central to the conversation.
Ex.) “Their parents are white, so they’re white,” false starts (pauses longer than 0.2 secs are odd, linguistically)
62
Disavowal of Racism
An explicit statement that one is not racist but usually precedes a racist statement or idea.
Ex.) “I know it sounds racist when I say that…”
63
Racial Displacement
The reinterpretation of ethnoracial issues as “really” about other factors, such as social classes and culture.
Ex.) “It’s completely interest related”
64
"Reverse Racism"
The ideological belief is that white people face discrimination and oppression from POC and their supposed institutional benefactors.
65
Three-generational Model of Language Shift
Immigrant generation: Monolingual, uses the language of the country of origin
Second generation: Bilingual, often with stronger English literacy skills
Third generation: Often monolingual in English or strongly English-dominant
(This shift currently occurs within two generations)
66
Language Maintenance
The preservation of a heritage language in a family and /or community through ongoing use in some context.
Ex.) Community centers or "Saturday Schools"
67
Language Revitalization
Efforts to revive, strengthen, and promote the use of a language that is endangered or no longer widely spoken.
i.e., reversing language death
68
Universal Ownership
The idea is that languages are essentially the shared intellectual property of all humankind.
i.e., When endangered languages are no longer spoken, "everyone should worry because it is everyone's loss"
69
Hyperbolic Valorization
Exaggerated praise of a language to the point of diminishing others, often leading to linguistic inequality and social hierarchies.
i.e., The idea that languages are a form of "cultural wealth"
70
Enumeration
The process of listing, categorizing, or counting languages, often in a systematic or structured manner, can help assess the vitality or endangerment of a language by identifying how many speakers it has.
Note: Only 10% of languages today will survive the century.
71
Mock Asian
An imagined variety of American English is frequently referred to as a 'Chinese accent' which is distorted for derogatory comedic effect.
72
"Push-Pull" Theory of Migration
Push factors: Conditions that make people want to leave their homeland, like political instability, poverty, limited opportunities, or disasters.
Pull factors: Conditions in a destination country that attract people, such as better jobs, political stability, a higher quality of life, and more opportunities.
73
Honorary Whites
The "good" few of the minority who academically excel are "honorary" white people because they are the "model minority."
74
"Forever Foreigner"
The idea is that no matter how many generations have been in America, they/ their children will always be seen as foreigners.
Ex.) "Where are you from? No, where are you really from?"
75
Mock Spanish
Use of Spanish words/ phrases in English in ways that misrepresent, caricature, or trivialize the Spanish language and its speakers Ex.) El Cheapo, "No problemo!"
76
Inverted Spanglish
Linguistic patterns of Spanish draw on mock language to parody the speech of white Americans.
Ex.) "What's up, cabron?"
77
Linguistic Divergence
The process through which a single language splits into multiple languages due to factors such as geographical separation, social changes, and historical developments.
78
Linguistic Convergence
The process where languages become more similar to each other over time due to prolonged contact.
79
Upward Convergence
The process in which a speaker adjusts their language to align more closely with a prestige dialect or the speech patterns of a higher social status group.
80
Downward Convergence
The process in which a speaker adjusts their language to align more closely with a dialect or speech style associated with a lower social status or less prestigious group.
81
Chicano English Features
1. Consonant Cluster Reduction:
Ex.) "best" might be pronounced as [bɛs] instead of [bɛst].
2. Merger of /3/ and /d3/:
Ex.) The sounds /ʒ/ (as in measure) and /dʒ/ (as in judge)
3. Interdental Fricative Fronting: This feature involves the replacement of the th sounds.
Ex.) "Think" might be pronounced as [fɪŋk] or "this" as [dɪs].
4. Neutralization of /i/ and /I/: Two vowels might be pronounced the same way, so words like bit and beat would sound the same.
Ex.) "bit" and "beat" = [bɪt]
5. Less Frequent Vowel Reduction: The first vowel is more distinct.
Ex.) "banana" = [bəˈnænə] but in Chicano English it's [baˈnænə]
82
Latinx Myths
Myth 1: Latinx people are a linguistically and culturally homogeneous group.
Answer: Spanish varies widely by country; LatinX people are multiracial
Myth 2: Spanish is an inferior or simple language.
Answer: Spanish spelling and some lexicon may be easy for English speakers to learn, but phonology and grammar (e.g., the trill, the subjunctive) are very difficult.
Myth 3: Spanish speakers can't and don't want to speak English.
Answer: Spanish speakers are shifting to English faster than any other immigrant groups in US history (from 3 generations to 2, or even 1).
Myth 4: Spanglish indicates an inability to speak either Spanish or English fluently.
Answer: Only fluent bilinguals can “code switch”.
Myth 5: Chicano English is "interference"/learner's English.
Answer: Chicano English is a dialect with linguistic features shaped by cultural and historical factors rather than a form of incorrect or incomplete English.
Myth 6: Latinx people have to choose between Spanish and English.
Answer: LatinX people largely English monolingual and those who aren't are largely billingual.
Myth 7: English is in jeopardy from Spanish.
Answer: Only a small minority of Spanish speakers in the US don't speak Spanish and most Latinx people are English monolinguals.
83
Oakland School Board Resolutions
Ebonics (African American Vernacular English) is a legitimate language with its distinct grammar and structure.
The resolutions aimed to improve educational outcomes for African American students by incorporating Ebonics into teaching strategies as a bridge to Standard English proficiency.
84
Afrocentric Hypothesis
AAVE comes from the languages of West Africa, brought by enslaved Africans.
85
Anglicist Hypothesis
AAE developed directly from British dialects of English, influenced by African linguistic patterns brought by enslaved people.
86
Creolist Hypothesis
AAE evolved from Creole languages spoken by enslaved Africans, which combined African languages and English.
87
Phonological Features of AAE
1. Th-Stopping (dental fricative): Replacing the "th" sound with [d] or [t].
Ex.) "this" as [dɪs] or "thing" as [tɪŋ].
2. Final Consonant Cluster Reduction: When two consonants appear at the end of a word, one may be dropped.
Ex.) "cold" might be pronounced as "col" [koʊl].
3. Monophthongization: Diphthongs (vowel sounds that glide from one position to another) are pronounced as single vowels.
Ex.), "ride" [raɪd] becomes "rahd" [rad].
4. Mergers: Certain vowel sounds that are distinct in other English varieties are pronounced the same in AAE. Ex.) "pin" and "pen" merger, both sound identical as [pɪn].
5. Vowel Lowering Before Velar Nasal: Vowels preceding a velar nasal ([ŋ], as in "sing") are lowered.
Ex.) "thing" pronounced with a lower vowel.
6. Stress on the First Syllable: Words may have stress shifted to the first syllable compared to Standard English.
Ex.) "police" as "PO-lice".
7. Non-Rhoticity: The [r] sound is omitted after a vowel.
Ex.) "four" as [foʊ]
8. Lenition (Weakening): Consonants, especially stops like [d] and [t], are softened or weakened, often becoming less pronounced.
Ex.) "better" pronounced as "be'er".
88
Grammatical Features of AAE
1. Copula Deletion: Omission of the verb "to be".
Ex.) "She is happy" to "She happy"
2. Present Habitual Progressive (Habitual be)
Ex.) "He is always running" to "He be runnin."
89
Signifying
The hidden meanings within African American discourse style.
Ex.) Double entendre or irony
90
Linguistic Appropriation
Appropriation is about taking language from another culture without respect or understanding.
91
Crossing
The temporary use of another group's language, to perform a role that does not permanently adopt.
92
Mock Language
Imitation/parody of language
Ex.) The intentional mispronunciation of an Asian accent by a non-Asian person.
93
Panethnicity
The grouping of people from different ethnic backgrounds who share certain commonalities into one collective identity.
Ex. ) Asian-Americans, Latinx
