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Biology 2420 > FINAL EXAM > Flashcards

FINAL EXAM Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Ionic Bond

A

one or more atoms completely transfer valence electrons to another atom

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2
Q

Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

A

atoms share their electrons equally in a covalent bond

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3
Q

Polar Covalent Bond

A

atoms do not share their valence electrons equally

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4
Q

Hydrogen Bonds

A

hydrogen atom will be attracted to an oxygen or nitrogen atom

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5
Q

Hydrophilic

A

water loving

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6
Q

Hydrophobic

A

water hating

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7
Q

Acid

A

solution has a higher H+ concentration than pure water, lower numeric pH than 7

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8
Q

Base

A

lower H+ concentration than pure water, greater numeric pH value than 7

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9
Q

Buffer

A

substances that prevent harmful changes in pH by accepting H+ when it is in excess, and donating H+ when it is depleted

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10
Q

How Does Carbonic Acid act as a buffer in the blood

A

Carbonic acid can separate into a bicarbonate ion and a hydrogen ion

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11
Q

How does bicarbonate act as a buffer in the blood

A

the bicarbonate ion can join a hydrogen ion and become Carbonic acid

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12
Q

what are the subunits that make up Carbohydrates

A

monosaccharide

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13
Q

what are the subunits that make up protiens

A

amino acid

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14
Q

what are the subunits that make up nucleic acids

A

1 phosphate group, 1 sugar, 1 base

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15
Q

what are the sub units that make up triclycerides

A

1 glycerol, 3 fatty acids

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16
Q

what are the subunits that make up phospholipids

A

1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids, 1 phosphate group

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17
Q

what is dehydration synthesis

A

links 2 monomers together, removes a molecule of water

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18
Q

what is hydrolysis

A

breaks bonds between monomers, adds a molecule of water

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19
Q

what is amphipathic

A

molecules contain hydrophilic and hydrophobic elements

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20
Q

Why do phospholipids form bilayers in water

A

They have a hydrophilic head and two long hydrophobic tails

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21
Q

How does the function of enzymes depend on their shape?

A

The shape of its active site allows the enzyme to bind to substrates and produce specific chemical reactions

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22
Q

What is Denature?

A

alter the natural characteristics of an enzyme by heat, or acidity

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23
Q

What are the 4 bases in RNA and which bases pair with one another?

A

Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Uracil
A+U, G+C

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24
Q

What are the 4 bases in DNA and which bases pair with one another?

A

Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine

A+T, G+C

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25
Q

How is ATP recycled to ADP+P and back again?

A

When ATP loses a phosphate bond, it becomes ADP and releases energy. When ADP gains a phosphate bond, it becomes ATP and is fully charged again

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26
Q

What are the 3 steps involved in cellular respiration?

A

glycolysis, krebs cycle, electron transport chain

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27
Q

What molecule is broken down during Glycolysis

A

glucose

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28
Q

What is the final electron acceptor in the electon transport chain

A

Oxygen

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29
Q

What is the composition of the plasma membrane, and how is it related to the amphipathic nature of phospholipids

A

the plasma membrane is formed by a phospholipid bilayer, so it has a hydrophilic head and 2 hydrophobic tails.

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30
Q

what is the mitochondria

A

energy producing cells
produce energy for the cell in the form of ATP through cellular respiration

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31
Q

what is diffusion

A

The movement of molecules down their concentration gradient

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32
Q

what is concentration gradient

A

The difference in the concentration of a substance between two locations

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33
Q

what is osmosis

A

Net diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane

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34
Q

what is osmotic pressure

A

The amount of pressure that would have to be exerted on a solution in order to prevent osmosis of pure water

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35
Q

what is osmolarity

A

The total number of particles per liter of solution

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36
Q

what is passive transport

A

movement of particles down a concentration gradient

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37
Q

what is simple diffusion across the phospholipid

A

the molecules are nonpolar, and can go right through the plasma membrane down their concentration gradient

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38
Q

what is simple diffusion through channel proteins

A

using channel proteins to go down the concentration gradient

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39
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

diffusion of a molecule through the membrane by binding to a carrier protein

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40
Q

primary active transport

A

Uses energy to move up the concentration gradient

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41
Q

secondary active transport

A

cells can use the energy stored in the sodium ion gradient to move substances in or out of the cell against their concentration gradient

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42
Q

carrier-mediated transport

A

Use a carrier protein to move across the plasma membrane

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43
Q

what are aquaporins?

A

Channel proteins that transport water

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44
Q

What is the sodium/potassium pump?

A

the cell moves 3 sodium ions out of the cell, and 2 potassium ions inside the cell. creates and electrochemical gradient across the plasma membrane

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45
Q

what are tissues?

A

a collection of specialized cells of the same type that perform a common function in the body

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46
Q

name the 4 types of tissues found in the human body

A

connective, muscular, nervous, epithelial

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47
Q

list/describe the 3 components found in all types of connective tissue

A

Specialized cells
ground substance
protein fibers

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48
Q

what is the “matrix”?

A

ground substance and protein fibers together

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49
Q

list/describe the 3 types of muscle tissue

A

skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle

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50
Q

Skeletal muscle
(voluntary/involuntary, location, structure of muscle fibers)

A

Voluntary, attached to bones by tendons, striated

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51
Q

Cardiac muscle
(voluntary/involuntary, location, structure of muscle fibers)

A

involuntary, found in the heart, striated

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52
Q

Smooth Muscle
(voluntary/involuntary, location, structure of muscle fibers)

A

involuntary, found in walls of hollow organs and blood vessels, not striated

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53
Q

What muscles are connected by gap junctions, and how does this affect the way the muscles function and contract?

A

Single-unit smooth muscle fibers, and Cardiac muscle. Gaps junctions allow the muscle to contract as a unit

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54
Q

What are the functions of epithelial tissue

A

protection

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55
Q

What is homeostasis

A

The ability to maintain a relatively constant internal environment in the body

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56
Q

What is negative feedback

A

the output of the system resolves or corrects the original stimulus

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57
Q

What is positive feedback

A

brings about an increasing change in the same direction as the original stimulus

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58
Q

What is the pulmonary circuit

A

pumping unoygenated blood to the lungs to exchange gases and return it the heart

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59
Q

What is the systemic circuit

A

to pump oxygenated blood to the rest of the body and back to the heart

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60
Q

What is interstitial fluid

A

fluid that surrounds cells and tissues, and is found in the spaces between blood vessels and cells

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61
Q

What is blood pressure

A

the force of your blood pushing against the walls of your arteries

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62
Q

What is systole

A

contraction of a heart chamber

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63
Q

What is diastole

A

relaxation of a heart chamber

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64
Q

What is the sinoatrial node

A

initiates action potential

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65
Q

What is the atrioventricular node

A

carries the action potential to the ventricles

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66
Q

What is the atrioventricular bundle

A

carries the action potential throughout the cells of the ventricles

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67
Q

What are the Purkinje fibers

A

causes the right and left ventricles to contract together

68
Q

What affects blood pressure

A

Cardiac output and peripheral resistance

69
Q

How can blood pressure be affected by changes in the blood vessels

A

Vasoconstriction- make the blood vessels smaller, raise blood pressure
Vasodilation- enlarges the blood vessels, lowers blood pressure

70
Q

What is hemoglobin? What is its role in transporting oxygen in the blood

A

iron-containing protein in RBCs, helps transport oxygen

71
Q

What are the mechanisms involved in inspiration and expiration?

A

Inspiration: diaphragm contracts, increasing volume of the thoracic cavity. This decreases the pressure in the lungs, and air flows in.
Expiration: diaphragm relaxes, decreasing the volume of thoracic cavity, and increases pressure in lungs, and air flows out.

72
Q

Describe gas exchange for the pulmonary circulation

A

the process of exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and bloodstream

73
Q

Describe gas exchange for systemic circulation

A

oxygen moves from the lungs into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide moves from the blood into the lungs

74
Q

What factors affect the binding of oxygen to hemoglobin

A

Partial pressure of oxygen
pH
Temperature

75
Q

In the systemic circulation, how does carbon dioxide join with water to form carbonic acid, which dissociates into H+ and bicarbonate ion

A

Carbon Dioxide diffuses into red blood cells, carbonic anhydrase joins the CO2 with H2O to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbonic acid dissociates into H+ and HCO3- (bicarbonate ion) H+ binds to hemoglobin, and HCO3- moves from the cell to the plasma.

76
Q

In the pulmonary circulation, how does carbon dioxide join with water to form carbonic acid, which dissociates into H+ and bicarbonate ion

A

HCO3- (Bicarbonate ion) moves into the red blood cells. H+ is released by hemoglobin when it binds oxygen. H+ joins with bicarbonate ion to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), carbonic anhydrase converts carbonic acid to CO2 and H2 o. CO2 diffuses into the alveoli down its concentration gradient

77
Q

How is breathing regulated by changes in blood pH

A

decreases in blood pH increases breathing rate

78
Q

What is innate immunity, give an example

A

Immunity you are born with

79
Q

What is adaptive immunity, give an example

A

Initiated and amplified by exposure

80
Q

What phagocytize pathogens?

A

Neutrophils and microphages

81
Q

What is inflammation

A

the local accumulation of fluids, plasma proteins, and leukocytes that is initiated by physical injury or infection

82
Q

What cells release histamine

A

Mast cells

83
Q

What does histamine do?

A

Histamine produces vasodilation and increased permeability of local blood vessels

84
Q

What is an antigen

A

fragments of pathogens; substances produced by pathogens; or abnormal proteins produced by cancer cells

85
Q

B-cells

A

antibody-mediated immunity

86
Q

T Cells

A

cell-mediated immunity

87
Q

Memory B Cells

A

remember an antigen, if the antigen enters the body again it will divide quickly and become plasma cells that produce antibodies that bind to the same antigen

87
Q

Plasma Cells

A

produce antibodies

88
Q

antibody

A

cells that produce proteins that bind to specific antigens

89
Q

Helper T Cells

A

secrete cytokines that activate the response of other immune system cells

90
Q

Cytotoxic (killer) T cells

A

Attack and kill cells that are infected with viruses or cancerous cells

91
Q

Active Immunity

A

The ability to mount a specific immune response against antigens

immunizations

92
Q

Passive Immunity

A

a specific immune response granted by the transfer of antibodies made my another organism

when antibodies cross the placenta from mother blood, breastfeeding, injections of antiserum and antitoxin

93
Q

How are macromolecules broken down into their subunits

A

enzymes hydrolyze (via hydrolysis) macromolecules into their monomers

94
Q

Why do different enzymes function in different parts of the digestive tract

A

different enzymes secreted by different organs of the digestive system function at different pHs

95
Q

Where is Pepsin produced? what macromolecule does it break down

A

Pepsin is produced in the stomach, breaks down proteins. Works in the stomach because there is a low pH (2)

96
Q

what does the pancreatic juice contain? why is the small intestine slightly basic?

A

Sodium bicarbonate and lipase, the sodium bicarbonate makes the pH of the small intestine slightly basic.

97
Q

what does lipase break down, and what type of pH does it function best?

A

lipase breaks down fats into glycerol and fatty acids, functions best at slightly basic pH

98
Q

What organ produces bile

A

Liver

99
Q

What organ stores bile

A

gall bladder

100
Q

how does bile break down fat

A

bile emulsifies fat because it contains bile salts

101
Q

what are the functions of the kidney?

A

maintenance of water-salt balance, maintenance of acid-base balance, reabsorption of filtered nutrients, secretion of hormones, excretion of metabolic waste

102
Q

what is the renal cortex

A

outer portion of kidney.

103
Q

what is the renal medulla

A

inner portion of kidney

104
Q

what is a nephron

A

a filtering unit in the kidney

105
Q

what is the bowman’s capsule

A

where filtration takes place

106
Q

what is the proximal convoluted tubule

A

reabsorbs most of the filtrate, beginning of nephron

107
Q

what is the loop of henle

A

portion of the nephron that goes into the renal medulla

108
Q

what is the descending limb of loop of henle

A

the part of the loop of Henle that goes down into the medulla

109
Q

what is the ascending limb of the loop of henle

A

part of the loop of Henle that goes up from the medulla to the cortex

110
Q

what is the distal convoluted tubule

A

the distal side of the nephron that is in the cortex

111
Q

what is the collecting duct

A

collects urine from nephrons and moves it into the renal pelvis and ureters

112
Q

what is the glomerulus

A

knot of capillaries

113
Q

what is the afferent arteriole

A

transports blood to the glomerulus

114
Q

what is the efferent arteriole

A

carries filtered blood away from the glomerulus and back to the general circulation

115
Q

how does the blood pressure in the glomerulus and bowman’s capsule assist in filtration

A

the relatively high blood pressure in glomeruli capillaries allow fluid, salts, and small molecules to flow into the bowmans capsule

116
Q

what substances enter the bowman’s capsule

A

fluid, salts, and small molecules

117
Q

what substances are excluded from the filtrate

A

red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, plasma proteins

118
Q

how do sodium ions, chloride ions, and water get reabsorbed into the kidney

A

sodium ions, active transport. chloride ions and water passively follow

119
Q

how are glucose and amino acids reabsorbed

A

secondary active transport

120
Q

why is glucose found in the urine of patients with diabetes mellitus

A

the glucose carrier proteins reach their maximum limit, so some glucose doesn’t get reabsorbed

121
Q

what is the role of the loop of Henle in water reabsorption

A

reabsorbs water and sodium chloride from urine

122
Q

how does the hyperosmotic enviornment of the medulla provide the osmotic gradient for the reabsorption of water across the walls of the collecting duct

A

active transport of ions, combined with the impermeability of this section to water, results in an increased osmolarity in the renal medullary interstitium. This creates an osmotic pressure gradient, drawing water from the descending limb and increasing the osmolarity of the tubular fluid

123
Q

how does ADH affect water reabsorption

A

allows the insertion of aquaporins into the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct, allowing more water to be reabsorbed

124
Q

What is the arrangement for myosin and actin in Skeletal muscle? What triggers the contraction?

A

actin and myosin are arranged parallel to fiber length. motor neuron triggers contraction

125
Q

what is the arrangement for myosin and actin in Smooth Muscle? what triggers the contraction?

A

actin and myosin are arranged to wrap around the fiber
single-unit: pacemaker
multi-unit: motor neuron

126
Q

what is the arrangement for myosin and actin in Cardiac muscle? what triggers the contraction?

A

the actin and myosin are arranged parallel to the muscle fibers.
triggered by pacemaker activity

127
Q

Describe the mechanisms by which muscles contract

A

1.muscle heads bind to actin and ATP.
2. ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP+P, the myosin head pivots and can bind to another actin.
3.The release of P cocks the head back and power strokes
4. ADP is released

128
Q
A
129
Q

what role does Tropomyosin have in Skeletal muscle contraction

A

Tropomyosin blocks the actin

130
Q

what role does Troponin have in Skeletal muscle contraction

A

Troponin moves the Tropomyosin out of the way

131
Q

what role does calcium ions have in Skeletal muscle contraction

A

calcium binds to Troponin and allows it to move the tropomyosin away from the actin

132
Q

what is compact bone

A

dense or cortical bone

133
Q

what is spongy bone

A

cancellous or trabecular bone

134
Q

what is an osteon

A

the microscopic structural and functional unit of compact bone

135
Q

what is trabeculae

A

lattice of narrow plates in spongy bone

136
Q

what is the epiphyseal plate

A

the area where bones can grow

137
Q

what is an osteoblast

A

bone forming cells, builds bone

138
Q

what is an osteocyte

A

mature bone cells, maintain bone structure

139
Q

what is an osteoclast

A

bone absorbing cells, break down bone and return calcium and phosphate to the blood

140
Q

what is the cell body

A

location of nucleus

141
Q

what are dendrites

A

receives signals from other neurons

142
Q

what is an axon

A

conducts action potentials away from the cell body to the axon terminals

143
Q

what are axon terminals

A

where neurotransmitters are released

144
Q

what is a myelin sheath

A

insulating layer that wraps around nerve axons

145
Q

what are the nodes of ranvier

A

gap in the myelin sheath

146
Q

what is a resting membrane potential

A

the difference in charge across the membrane when the cell is at rest

147
Q

what is depolarization

A

when the membrane potential becomes less negative

148
Q

what is repolarization

A

the flow of postive charge out of the cell

149
Q

what is hyperpolarization

A

when the membrane potential becomes more negative

150
Q

what happens during an action potential

A

An action potential occurs because of the sequential opening and closing of voltage gated sodium and potassium channels

151
Q

what is a synapse

A

small space between two neurons or a motor neuron and an effector

152
Q

what is a presynaptic cell

A

the cell before the synapse

153
Q

what is a postsynaptic cell

A

the cell after the synapse

154
Q

what is a neurotransmitter

A

chemicals like ACh

155
Q

what is the excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)

A

depolarizes membrane

156
Q

what is an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

A

hyperpolarizes membrane

157
Q

what happens at the synapse when an action potential arrives at the axon terminal of the presynaptic cell

A
158
Q

what are the two anatomical divisions of the nervous system

A

Central Nervous System, Peripheral Nervous System

159
Q

what does the CNS include

A

brain, spinal cord

160
Q

what does the PNS include

A

nerves, ganglia, neurons

161
Q

What are the two functional divisions of the nervous system

A

Sensory and Motor

162
Q

What is a sensory neuron

A
163
Q

what is a motor neuron

A
164
Q

what are interneurons

A
165
Q

what are functions of the cerebellum

A
166
Q

where does the cerebellum receive information in order to function

A

Biology 2420 (1 decks)

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