FINAL EXAM Flashcards
1
Q
Ionic Bond
A
one or more atoms completely transfer valence electrons to another atom
2
Q
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
A
atoms share their electrons equally in a covalent bond
3
Q
Polar Covalent Bond
A
atoms do not share their valence electrons equally
4
Q
Hydrogen Bonds
A
hydrogen atom will be attracted to an oxygen or nitrogen atom
5
Q
Hydrophilic
A
water loving
6
Q
Hydrophobic
A
water hating
7
Q
Acid
A
solution has a higher H+ concentration than pure water, lower numeric pH than 7
8
Q
Base
A
lower H+ concentration than pure water, greater numeric pH value than 7
9
Q
Buffer
A
substances that prevent harmful changes in pH by accepting H+ when it is in excess, and donating H+ when it is depleted
10
Q
How Does Carbonic Acid act as a buffer in the blood
A
Carbonic acid can separate into a bicarbonate ion and a hydrogen ion
11
Q
How does bicarbonate act as a buffer in the blood
A
the bicarbonate ion can join a hydrogen ion and become Carbonic acid
12
Q
what are the subunits that make up Carbohydrates
A
monosaccharide
13
Q
what are the subunits that make up protiens
A
amino acid
14
Q
what are the subunits that make up nucleic acids
A
1 phosphate group, 1 sugar, 1 base
15
Q
what are the sub units that make up triclycerides
A
1 glycerol, 3 fatty acids
16
Q
what are the subunits that make up phospholipids
A
1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids, 1 phosphate group
17
Q
what is dehydration synthesis
A
links 2 monomers together, removes a molecule of water
18
Q
what is hydrolysis
A
breaks bonds between monomers, adds a molecule of water
19
Q
what is amphipathic
A
molecules contain hydrophilic and hydrophobic elements
20
Q
Why do phospholipids form bilayers in water
A
They have a hydrophilic head and two long hydrophobic tails
21
Q
How does the function of enzymes depend on their shape?
A
The shape of its active site allows the enzyme to bind to substrates and produce specific chemical reactions
22
Q
What is Denature?
A
alter the natural characteristics of an enzyme by heat, or acidity
23
Q
What are the 4 bases in RNA and which bases pair with one another?
A
Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Uracil
A+U, G+C
24
Q
What are the 4 bases in DNA and which bases pair with one another?
A
Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine
A+T, G+C
25
How is ATP recycled to ADP+P and back again?
When ATP loses a phosphate bond, it becomes ADP and releases energy. When ADP gains a phosphate bond, it becomes ATP and is fully charged again
26
What are the 3 steps involved in cellular respiration?
glycolysis, krebs cycle, electron transport chain
27
What molecule is broken down during Glycolysis
glucose
28
What is the final electron acceptor in the electon transport chain
Oxygen
29
What is the composition of the plasma membrane, and how is it related to the amphipathic nature of phospholipids
the plasma membrane is formed by a phospholipid bilayer, so it has a hydrophilic head and 2 hydrophobic tails.
30
what is the mitochondria
energy producing cells
produce energy for the cell in the form of ATP through cellular respiration
31
what is diffusion
The movement of molecules down their concentration gradient
32
what is concentration gradient
The difference in the concentration of a substance between two locations
33
what is osmosis
Net diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane
34
what is osmotic pressure
The amount of pressure that would have to be exerted on a solution in order to prevent osmosis of pure water
35
what is osmolarity
The total number of particles per liter of solution
36
what is passive transport
movement of particles down a concentration gradient
37
what is simple diffusion across the phospholipid
the molecules are nonpolar, and can go right through the plasma membrane down their concentration gradient
38
what is simple diffusion through channel proteins
using channel proteins to go down the concentration gradient
39
facilitated diffusion
diffusion of a molecule through the membrane by binding to a carrier protein
40
primary active transport
Uses energy to move up the concentration gradient
41
secondary active transport
cells can use the energy stored in the sodium ion gradient to move substances in or out of the cell against their concentration gradient
42
carrier-mediated transport
Use a carrier protein to move across the plasma membrane
43
what are aquaporins?
Channel proteins that transport water
44
What is the sodium/potassium pump?
the cell moves 3 sodium ions out of the cell, and 2 potassium ions inside the cell. creates and electrochemical gradient across the plasma membrane
45
what are tissues?
a collection of specialized cells of the same type that perform a common function in the body
46
name the 4 types of tissues found in the human body
connective, muscular, nervous, epithelial
47
list/describe the 3 components found in all types of connective tissue
Specialized cells
ground substance
protein fibers
48
what is the "matrix"?
ground substance and protein fibers together
49
list/describe the 3 types of muscle tissue
skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle
50
Skeletal muscle
(voluntary/involuntary, location, structure of muscle fibers)
Voluntary, attached to bones by tendons, striated
51
Cardiac muscle
(voluntary/involuntary, location, structure of muscle fibers)
involuntary, found in the heart, striated
52
Smooth Muscle
(voluntary/involuntary, location, structure of muscle fibers)
involuntary, found in walls of hollow organs and blood vessels, not striated
53
What muscles are connected by gap junctions, and how does this affect the way the muscles function and contract?
Single-unit smooth muscle fibers, and Cardiac muscle. Gaps junctions allow the muscle to contract as a unit
54
What are the functions of epithelial tissue
protection
55
What is homeostasis
The ability to maintain a relatively constant internal environment in the body
56
What is negative feedback
the output of the system resolves or corrects the original stimulus
57
What is positive feedback
brings about an increasing change in the same direction as the original stimulus
58
What is the pulmonary circuit
pumping unoygenated blood to the lungs to exchange gases and return it the heart
59
What is the systemic circuit
to pump oxygenated blood to the rest of the body and back to the heart
60
What is interstitial fluid
fluid that surrounds cells and tissues, and is found in the spaces between blood vessels and cells
61
What is blood pressure
the force of your blood pushing against the walls of your arteries
62
What is systole
contraction of a heart chamber
63
What is diastole
relaxation of a heart chamber
64
What is the sinoatrial node
initiates action potential
65
What is the atrioventricular node
carries the action potential to the ventricles
66
What is the atrioventricular bundle
carries the action potential throughout the cells of the ventricles
67
What are the Purkinje fibers
causes the right and left ventricles to contract together
68
What affects blood pressure
Cardiac output and peripheral resistance
69
How can blood pressure be affected by changes in the blood vessels
Vasoconstriction- make the blood vessels smaller, raise blood pressure
Vasodilation- enlarges the blood vessels, lowers blood pressure
70
What is hemoglobin? What is its role in transporting oxygen in the blood
iron-containing protein in RBCs, helps transport oxygen
71
What are the mechanisms involved in inspiration and expiration?
Inspiration: diaphragm contracts, increasing volume of the thoracic cavity. This decreases the pressure in the lungs, and air flows in.
Expiration: diaphragm relaxes, decreasing the volume of thoracic cavity, and increases pressure in lungs, and air flows out.
72
Describe gas exchange for the pulmonary circulation
the process of exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and bloodstream
73
Describe gas exchange for systemic circulation
oxygen moves from the lungs into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide moves from the blood into the lungs
74
What factors affect the binding of oxygen to hemoglobin
Partial pressure of oxygen
pH
Temperature
75
In the systemic circulation, how does carbon dioxide join with water to form carbonic acid, which dissociates into H+ and bicarbonate ion
Carbon Dioxide diffuses into red blood cells, carbonic anhydrase joins the CO2 with H2O to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbonic acid dissociates into H+ and HCO3- (bicarbonate ion) H+ binds to hemoglobin, and HCO3- moves from the cell to the plasma.
76
In the pulmonary circulation, how does carbon dioxide join with water to form carbonic acid, which dissociates into H+ and bicarbonate ion
HCO3- (Bicarbonate ion) moves into the red blood cells. H+ is released by hemoglobin when it binds oxygen. H+ joins with bicarbonate ion to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), carbonic anhydrase converts carbonic acid to CO2 and H2 o. CO2 diffuses into the alveoli down its concentration gradient
77
How is breathing regulated by changes in blood pH
decreases in blood pH increases breathing rate
78
What is innate immunity, give an example
Immunity you are born with
79
What is adaptive immunity, give an example
Initiated and amplified by exposure
80
What phagocytize pathogens?
Neutrophils and microphages
81
What is inflammation
the local accumulation of fluids, plasma proteins, and leukocytes that is initiated by physical injury or infection
82
What cells release histamine
Mast cells
83
What does histamine do?
Histamine produces vasodilation and increased permeability of local blood vessels
84
What is an antigen
fragments of pathogens; substances produced by pathogens; or abnormal proteins produced by cancer cells
85
B-cells
antibody-mediated immunity
86
T Cells
cell-mediated immunity
87
Memory B Cells
remember an antigen, if the antigen enters the body again it will divide quickly and become plasma cells that produce antibodies that bind to the same antigen
87
Plasma Cells
produce antibodies
88
antibody
cells that produce proteins that bind to specific antigens
89
Helper T Cells
secrete cytokines that activate the response of other immune system cells
90
Cytotoxic (killer) T cells
Attack and kill cells that are infected with viruses or cancerous cells
91
Active Immunity
The ability to mount a specific immune response against antigens
immunizations
92
Passive Immunity
a specific immune response granted by the transfer of antibodies made my another organism
when antibodies cross the placenta from mother blood, breastfeeding, injections of antiserum and antitoxin
93
How are macromolecules broken down into their subunits
enzymes hydrolyze (via hydrolysis) macromolecules into their monomers
94
Why do different enzymes function in different parts of the digestive tract
different enzymes secreted by different organs of the digestive system function at different pHs
95
Where is Pepsin produced? what macromolecule does it break down
Pepsin is produced in the stomach, breaks down proteins. Works in the stomach because there is a low pH (2)
96
what does the pancreatic juice contain? why is the small intestine slightly basic?
Sodium bicarbonate and lipase, the sodium bicarbonate makes the pH of the small intestine slightly basic.
97
what does lipase break down, and what type of pH does it function best?
lipase breaks down fats into glycerol and fatty acids, functions best at slightly basic pH
98
What organ produces bile
Liver
99
What organ stores bile
gall bladder
100
how does bile break down fat
bile emulsifies fat because it contains bile salts
101
what are the functions of the kidney?
maintenance of water-salt balance, maintenance of acid-base balance, reabsorption of filtered nutrients, secretion of hormones, excretion of metabolic waste
102
what is the renal cortex
outer portion of kidney.
103
what is the renal medulla
inner portion of kidney
104
what is a nephron
a filtering unit in the kidney
105
what is the bowman's capsule
where filtration takes place
106
what is the proximal convoluted tubule
reabsorbs most of the filtrate, beginning of nephron
107
what is the loop of henle
portion of the nephron that goes into the renal medulla
108
what is the descending limb of loop of henle
the part of the loop of Henle that goes down into the medulla
109
what is the ascending limb of the loop of henle
part of the loop of Henle that goes up from the medulla to the cortex
110
what is the distal convoluted tubule
the distal side of the nephron that is in the cortex
111
what is the collecting duct
collects urine from nephrons and moves it into the renal pelvis and ureters
112
what is the glomerulus
knot of capillaries
113
what is the afferent arteriole
transports blood to the glomerulus
114
what is the efferent arteriole
carries filtered blood away from the glomerulus and back to the general circulation
115
how does the blood pressure in the glomerulus and bowman's capsule assist in filtration
the relatively high blood pressure in glomeruli capillaries allow fluid, salts, and small molecules to flow into the bowmans capsule
116
what substances enter the bowman's capsule
fluid, salts, and small molecules
117
what substances are excluded from the filtrate
red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, plasma proteins
118
how do sodium ions, chloride ions, and water get reabsorbed into the kidney
sodium ions, active transport. chloride ions and water passively follow
119
how are glucose and amino acids reabsorbed
secondary active transport
120
why is glucose found in the urine of patients with diabetes mellitus
the glucose carrier proteins reach their maximum limit, so some glucose doesn't get reabsorbed
121
what is the role of the loop of Henle in water reabsorption
reabsorbs water and sodium chloride from urine
122
how does the hyperosmotic enviornment of the medulla provide the osmotic gradient for the reabsorption of water across the walls of the collecting duct
active transport of ions, combined with the impermeability of this section to water, results in an increased osmolarity in the renal medullary interstitium. This creates an osmotic pressure gradient, drawing water from the descending limb and increasing the osmolarity of the tubular fluid
123
how does ADH affect water reabsorption
allows the insertion of aquaporins into the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct, allowing more water to be reabsorbed
124
What is the arrangement for myosin and actin in Skeletal muscle? What triggers the contraction?
actin and myosin are arranged parallel to fiber length. motor neuron triggers contraction
125
what is the arrangement for myosin and actin in Smooth Muscle? what triggers the contraction?
actin and myosin are arranged to wrap around the fiber
single-unit: pacemaker
multi-unit: motor neuron
126
what is the arrangement for myosin and actin in Cardiac muscle? what triggers the contraction?
the actin and myosin are arranged parallel to the muscle fibers.
triggered by pacemaker activity
127
Describe the mechanisms by which muscles contract
1.muscle heads bind to actin and ATP.
2. ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP+P, the myosin head pivots and can bind to another actin.
3.The release of P cocks the head back and power strokes
4. ADP is released
128
129
what role does Tropomyosin have in Skeletal muscle contraction
Tropomyosin blocks the actin
130
what role does Troponin have in Skeletal muscle contraction
Troponin moves the Tropomyosin out of the way
131
what role does calcium ions have in Skeletal muscle contraction
calcium binds to Troponin and allows it to move the tropomyosin away from the actin
132
what is compact bone
dense or cortical bone
133
what is spongy bone
cancellous or trabecular bone
134
what is an osteon
the microscopic structural and functional unit of compact bone
135
what is trabeculae
lattice of narrow plates in spongy bone
136
what is the epiphyseal plate
the area where bones can grow
137
what is an osteoblast
bone forming cells, builds bone
138
what is an osteocyte
mature bone cells, maintain bone structure
139
what is an osteoclast
bone absorbing cells, break down bone and return calcium and phosphate to the blood
140
what is the cell body
location of nucleus
141
what are dendrites
receives signals from other neurons
142
what is an axon
conducts action potentials away from the cell body to the axon terminals
143
what are axon terminals
where neurotransmitters are released
144
what is a myelin sheath
insulating layer that wraps around nerve axons
145
what are the nodes of ranvier
gap in the myelin sheath
146
what is a resting membrane potential
the difference in charge across the membrane when the cell is at rest
147
what is depolarization
when the membrane potential becomes less negative
148
what is repolarization
the flow of postive charge out of the cell
149
what is hyperpolarization
when the membrane potential becomes more negative
150
what happens during an action potential
An action potential occurs because of the sequential opening and closing of voltage gated sodium and potassium channels
151
what is a synapse
small space between two neurons or a motor neuron and an effector
152
what is a presynaptic cell
the cell before the synapse
153
what is a postsynaptic cell
the cell after the synapse
154
what is a neurotransmitter
chemicals like ACh
155
what is the excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)
depolarizes membrane
156
what is an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
hyperpolarizes membrane
157
what happens at the synapse when an action potential arrives at the axon terminal of the presynaptic cell
158
what are the two anatomical divisions of the nervous system
Central Nervous System, Peripheral Nervous System
159
what does the CNS include
brain, spinal cord
160
what does the PNS include
nerves, ganglia, neurons
161
What are the two functional divisions of the nervous system
Sensory and Motor
162
What is a sensory neuron
163
what is a motor neuron
164
what are interneurons
165
what are functions of the cerebellum
166
where does the cerebellum receive information in order to function
