FINAL EXam Flashcards
1
Q
Anabolism
A
refers to the metabolic pathways that synthesize complex molecules from simpler ones, using energy
example: making glucose from photosynthesis; proteins from amino acids
- requires energy
2
Q
catabolism
A
refers to the metabolic pathways that break down complex molecules to simpler ones, releasing energy
example: cellular respiration(breaking down glucose)
- gives off energy
3
Q
what is metabolic rate affected by?
A
Eactivity= altered skeletal muscle activity- exercise needs energy
- food-induced thermogenesis- digestion, absorption and use of stores
4
Q
201
How does size effect metabolic rate?
A
the bigger you get metabolic rate drops since you can store more energy than a smaller animal
- the smaller you get the more energy use per gram less energy efficient
5
Q
when grouping organisms together what is the overall slope of the graph
A
0.75 .
6
Q
what is mass-specific?
A
resting metabolic rate scale with mass
7
Q
what certain factors affect muscles and the force/production of movement and how?
A
- # of muscle cells in the tissue
- length of the muscle
- speed of contraction
- the force generated by any muscle will increase as you increase the:
-# of muscle cells in the tissue
- length of the muscle
The force generated by any muscle will decrease with the speed of contraction
8
Q
a muscle is a bundle of what?
A
muscle fibres
9
Q
during growth what takes place inside the cell?
A
hundreds of myoblasts fish to form a long, multi-nucleate cell
10
Q
muscle fibres are filled with bundles of
A
myofibrils
11
Q
myofibrils consists of stacks of what?
A
alternating thick and thin filaments
12
Q
how are the thick and thin filaments in a myofibril organized?
A
they are arranged along the length of the myofibril in sarcomeres, which are the functional unit of muscles
13
Q
under a microscope myofibrils appear what?
A
striated
14
Q
what are the thin filaments in a muscle?
A
- actin: these wrap around each other in a helical manner
- tropomyosin: this is a long, rope-like protein that winds around the actin filament. It acts as a regulatory protein by blocking the binding sites for the myosin (thick filament) on the actin molecules
- troponin : this is a complex of three proteins that attach to tropomyosin. It plays a crucial role in muscle contraction by responding to calcium ions, which results in a change in the position of the tropomyosin, thereby exposing the binding sites for myosin
15
Q
what are the thick filaments in a muscle?
A
- myosin
each myosin protein is a dimer of two polypeptides coiled around each other with a globular “head” at one end and a long helical “tail”
- dozens of myosin homodimers are arranged into thick muscle filaments with the head group sticking “out”
16
Q
Each myosin head domain has?
A
ATP binding site: this is where ATP binds to the myosin head.
- Actin binding site :This site on the myosin head is where it attaches to the actin filament. When myosin binds to actin, it forms a cross-bridge, allowing the myosin head to pull on the actin filament, which contributes to muscle contraction.
Power Stroke Mechanism: The myosin head undergoes a conformational change after the ATP is hydrolyzed into ADP and phosphate. This change moves the head in a way that pulls the actin filament toward the center of the sarcomere, known as the power stroke. After the power stroke, ADP and phosphate are released from the myosin head, resetting it for a new cycle of muscle contraction.
17
Q
what is a crossbridge?
A
the interaction between an actin protein and a myosin head group
18
Q
what is the key thing when thinking about contraction in the sliding filament theory?
A
actin filaments do not get shorter
myosin filaments do not get shorter
what get shorter is the length of the sarcomere
- when muscle is fully contracted there is a massive overlap of actin+myosin
19
Q
what is the sarcoplasmic reticulum?
A
- surrounds the myofibrils, which are the contractile units made up of sarcomeres
- this is where calcium is stored. When the muscle is relaxed, the SR stores calcium ions lowering the concentration in the cytosol
- when the there is a release of the calcium it is moved into the cytosol. this triggers the interaction of actin and myosin.
- after contraction calcium ions are pumped back into the SR, which helps muscle to relax
20
Q
explain how muscle contraction is activated?
A
when a signal is received the motor neurone
1. opens ca- channels through facilatated diffusion
- ca ions then diffuse into the myofibril cytoplasm (cytosol)
21
Q
what happens when the ca2+ enters the cytosol?
A
- Ca ions bind troponin on the actin filaments
- this causes tropomyosin to shift, exposing myosin-binding sites on the actin
- myosin+actin can now form a cross-bridge
22
Q
the force generated during a muscle contraction increases when the number of what?
A
crossbirdges formed on a sarcomere increase
23
Q
the force generated by any muscle will decrease with speed of contraction TRUE OR FALSE?
A
true
( rapid contraction decreases # of cross bridges)
24
Q
The force generated by any muscle will increase as you increase the number of muscle cells in the tissue?TRUE OR FALSE
A
TRUE( more muscles = more sarcomeres)
25
the force generated by any muscle will increase as you increase the length of the muscle tissue true or false?
TRUE
longer the muscle cells= more sarcomeres
26
how does muscle relaxation take place?
1. the facilitated ca2+ channels in the SR close ca can no longer leave the SR
2. the ca2+ - ATPase pumps remove the ca from the cytosol
3. troponin release Ca, causing tropomyosin to change into its original shape and block the myosin binding site
4. unable to bind myosin, the actin filaments slide back, lengthening sarcomere, +relaxing the muscle
27
what are the different forces acting on a runner?
1. Gravity: gravity constantly pulls the runner toward the ground, this is the #1 concern for the runner since the runner has to work against it to lift the body off the ground.
2. Thrust : in running, thrust is the action of the leg muscles pushing against the ground
- this force propels the runner forward. This is not gonna generate much drag
3. Drag : Drag is the force that opposes the runners forward motion through the air
- this increases with the runner's speed and the density in the air. this is not a big concern
4. muscle action : this is about how runners use there muscles to move, muscles help to overcome gravity by lifting the body and help fight drag by pushing the body forward.
28
what is metabolic rate?
amount of energy consumed by an animal in a given period ( measured by heat produced, O2 consumed, Co2 produced)
29
what is the mass-specific metabolic rate?
energy (volume of oxygen) required to move 1 unit mass of organism
unit: J/g x Km
30
What is the definition of Cost. of Transport?
energy required to move 1 unit mass of an organism 1 unit distance
31
Explain the Cot for larger animals compared to smaller animals?
the smaller the animal the greater the Cot cost of transport
- the larger the animal the lower the Cot
- velocity increase the lower the CoT
32
what are the different forces acting on a swimmer?
Gravity: this is the force that pulls the swimmer down. not important
Thrust: this is the force that swimmers generate by pushing against the water. Thrust propels it forward.
Drag: this is the number one concern, the resistance that the water provides against the forward motion of the swimmer. Drag slows the swimmer down.
Buoyancy: this is the force that acts upward, opposite of gravity. It helps keep the swimmer floating.
33
What are the two types of drag?
viscous drag: energy to move water over body
solve: scales or smooth skin
but small fish can't swim fast because of viscous drag
- large, not a problem because muscularture to break the hydrogen bonds and break it with drag
- smaller fish tend to have adaptions which allow them to move rapidly in short Burts, useful to evading predators or catching prey.
Inertial forces: water fills void left behind as body moves
- Pressure drag primary force that affects larger fish, since they leave a larger void
- large fish can cruise at high speeds with less energy per unit of mass once they overcome the initial resistance. Their adaptions favour long- distance travel or fast cruising speeds to chase down prey or migrate
34
what is the forces that act on fliers?
Gravity: is the force that pulls the flier toward the earth
- all fliers must work against gravity to stay aloft. The strength of gravity dictates how much lift and thrust a flier must generate to rise off the ground and stay in the air BIGGEST RESISTANCE
Thrust: thrust is the force that moves the flier forward through the air
- is crucial for overcoming drag and gaining or maintaining speed. In birds, thirst is generated by flapping the wings
Lift: is the force that moves the flier upward, directly opposing gravity
- lift must be equal to or greater than gravity to ascend or remain upward.
- Thrift is when the wings generate lift to counter gravity
35
when does flying cost less CoT?
it becomes cheaper to fly the lighter the body weight to wing ratio
36
what is induced power?
energy required to fight gravity
37
what is parasite power?
the energy required to fight drag
38
Explain the general trend that takes place for a MSMR vs velocity?
when there is induced power and the velocity increases Energy required to fight gravity decreases
- when there is parasite power does not fight drag since it is not fighting gravity
- but when you draw a curve with both induced and parasite. There is a general trend where when velocity is low metabolic rate is high since it is fighting gravity, as velocity increases gravity becomes less of an energy since wings generating lift which lowers the curve, but then drag becomes more of an issue and so metabolic rate increases again as drag exponentially increases.
39
rank costs of transport from running, swimming, flying
1.running first
2.flying more efficient since wings counter gravity
3. most efficient is swimmers
40
what is homeostasis ?
the regulation of an internal environment in the face of changes in the external environment
41
what is the negative feedback mechanism ?
a change in a factor under homeostatic control that triggers a response that opposed that change.
eg. human Body, it helps regulate temperature by triggering cooling responses like sweating when body temperatures rise above normal
42
what makes up the negative feedback mechanism?
there is a stimulus: external (internal) change
sensor: detects the change
integrator: compares the signal to a set point
effector:a physiological or chemical that returns us to the set point
43
what is the positive feedback mechanism?
- tends to move a system away from its equilibrium making it more unstable.
sensor: this component detects changes in the environment or internal system that deviate from a target state or trigger an event.
for example, in childbirth stretch receptor in the cervix serve as sensors that detect the stretching caused by the baby pushing against the cervix
integrator: receives information from the sensor and processes it to determine an appropriate response. For example the brain acts as a control centre during childbirth by releasing oxytocin in response to the cervical stretching
Effector: carries out the response to enhance the original stimulus. In this case of childbirth, the effector would be the muscles of the uterus, which contract more strongly as a result from the oxytocin stimulation.
44
what is thermoregulation? what is ambient temperature what is body temperature?
- regulating the internal body temperature
- ambient: the temperature of the environment
- body temperature: of Tb is too low, membrane become to viscous + reaction rates are too slow
- if Tb is too high- membrane= leaky Rx rates stop due to denaturation
45
what is conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporation in terms of body heat and how it can be exchanged with the environment?
- conduction- direct contact with a solid. The rate of heat exchange
- convection- contact with a fluid (water) . wind is also fluid, if wind is around you it can take heat from your body
- radiation: emitting or absorbing electromagnetic radiation
- evaporation: heat loss due to phase change (l-g)
46
how do animals regulate body heat
by changing the rate of heat gain/loss
47
what is the body temperature source for an endotherm?
generates body heat through metabolism
48
what is the body temperature source for an ectotherm?
acquires more body head from surroundings
- carry out biochemical reactions
- most body heat from surroundings
49
what is the body temperature regulation stategy for an homeotherm?
maintain "constant" body temp
50
what is the body temperature regulation stategy for an heterotherm/poikilotherm?
- body temperature fluctuates with ambient temperature
51
what are endothermic-homeotherms?
these organisms maintain a constant body temperature using the heat they generate from metabolism
- humans, birds mammals
52
What is a homeothermic-ectotherms ?
marine fish
marine invertebrates
maintain a constant body temperature but get heat from the surrounding environment
53
what is the heterothermic ectotherms?
freshwater invertebrates, most freshwater fish
- body temperature fluctuates with the ambient temperature
54
what is the heterothermic endotherms?
evolution hasn't gone here
- heat through metabolism but body temperature fluctuates with ambient temperature
- only thing here is mole rat
55
what are the different ways to optimizes heat exchange with the environment to attain an ideal Body temperature? and how can it be done
exposure- movement into, or out of, the sun/wind
it can be done through grouping, dormancy
migration: complete avoidance of poor environmental conditions
56
what is dormancy and what is it also known as?
daily torpor
- short (4-8 hrs) depending on species happens during the day
- this saves a lot of energy
- save energy in the day active all year around
- around ~ 10 C drop in Tb set point
HYBERNATION:
- Tb is maintained close to Ta
- massive reduction in MR
- Lasts around ~2 weeks
- repeats over many months
-takes lots of E to "wake up"
- they have to be large animals that can pack on body mass
57
what are the physiological regulation of conductance ?
- this is the physiological adjustments to optimize heat exchange with the environment to attain an ideal Body temperature
- ACCLIMATION
- BLOOD FLOW
- INSULATION
- FUR LENGTH AND COLOR CHANGE
-SWEATING/PANTING
-CRYOPROTECTANTS
-SHIVERING THERMOGENESIS
- NON-SHIVERING THERMOGENISIS
58
What is acclimation ?
this is where organisms adjust their cellular conditions to work optimally in cold and warm temperatures
59
what happens to the membrane when acclimated to 5 C compared to 25C?
5: more unsaturated fatty acids
more cholesterol
shorter fatty and chain
25: higher saturated fatty acid chain
- longer fatty acid chain
- too fluid
60
what is vasoconstriction? and how does it differ from endotherms compared to ectotherms?
vasoconstriction decreases conductance its when the blood flow constricts from the vessels
endotherms: when cold retain heat
ectotherms: when warm retain heat
61
what is vasodilation? and how does it differ from endotherms compared to ectotherms?
vasodilation increases conductance, the vessels dilate.
- endotherms: when hot to lose heat
- ectotherms: when cold to absorb heat
62
what is insulation? and what are the three different types of insulation?
internal fat: organisms gain mass in the winter or fall and lose it in the spring
external: fur/feathers
- organisms increase # and the length in the fall and in the winter lose it
- piloerection: the "fluffing up" of fur/feathers to increase thickness of insulation layer
63
what are cryoprotectants
- reduce the freezing point allow body fluid to remain liquid when its colder out
- draw water out of cells so it freezes in the extracellular space
- when water freezes outside of cell its better
- ex. frog
64
what is shivering thermogenesis ?
simultaneous action of antagonistic (opposite muscles) muscles generates heat
- just going to generate heat
- muscle contraction doesn't cause
any movement just heat
65
what is non-shivering thermogenesis?
- brown fat deposits and white fat deposits which is (regular fat)
- fat cells are loaded with special mitochondria that use proton motive force to generate heat, not ATP
- you go through regular ATPsynthase but instead of generating ATP you generate heat through a protein called uncoupling protein 1.
- burn brown fat to ramp temperature after being in a hibernation or winter torpor
66
what is the ultimate goal of managing energy budget properly ?
is to have energy remaining to allocate to production
67
define "life history" ?
is the branch of evolutionary biology that studies how organisms allocate resources to growth, reproduction,and survival to maximize their evolutionary fitness. It examines trade-offs that organisms make in different environments to optimize their reproductive success over their lifetime
(success in the past shapes strategies in the present)
-
68
explain how and why life history strategies vary among species and even within populations. Recognize how life history traits co-vary across species, often along a continuum associated with r and K selected strategies
they vary primarily due to the environment affects by influencing energy budgets
- amount of light: food sources, shelter, wind, water etc.,
r selected strategies: these are favoured in unstable or unpredictable environments where the ability to reproduce quickly is crucial. these species usually produce many offspring, invest little in each ones and reproduce at a younger age. insects and weeds
K selected strategies: these are favoured in stable environments where competition is intense, and resources are limited. Species with K-selected traits produce fewer offspring but invest in them way more, ensuring a higher survival rate. These species have longer lifespans and delayed reproduction. EX. ELEPHANTS AND HUMANS
within population:
within species life history traits can very due to local adaptions to environmental conditions, genetic diversity and competition within species.
- in regions where there are allot of resources, the individuals might grow faster and reproduce earlier, while in poor resource areas, growth and reproduction is delayed.
-higher predation the earlier reproduction
69
what is fecundity?
the number if offspring one has or the ability to produce an abundance of offspring
70
what is parity ?
the frequency of reproduction or the number of times a female has given birth
71
what is passive care?
is the pre-birth energy investment
72
what is active care
post-birth E investment
73
what is semelparity?
individuals of the same species can breed only once in its lifetime
eg. coho salmons
- this often is adapted when there is a high tradeoff between reproduction and survival for the adult in cases where the survival between families of young animals are low
- generally in r-selekted
74
what is interoparity?
individual of the same species can breed more than once in its lifetime
ex. Atlantic salmon or humans
75
what is a life-history tradeoff
A life-history tradeoff refers to the compromises that organisms must make between competing physiological needs and reproductive strategies, due to limited resources like energy, time, and nutrients.
76
what are some examples of life-history tradeoffs?
current vs future reproduction: investing heavily in current offspring can deplete an organisms resources so much that It reduces their ability to survive or reproduce in the future. likewise, conserving resources might limit reproductive success but enhance survival and future reproductive opportunities
2. quantity vs. quality of the offspring
- some species may produce many offspring but with minimal investment in each (r-stategy) increasing the likelihood that some will survive in unpredictable environments. Others may produce fewer offspring but with more investment in each (K-stategy) enhancing the survival rate of those offspring in competitive environments
Growth vs.reproduction : Energy invested in growth can enhance survival and future reproductive success, but it delays the onset of reproduction. Alternatively, early reproduction may limit growth and competitive abilities, impacting the organisms overall fitness
77
what are the three types of survivorship curves? AND WHAT IS SURVIVORSHIP CURVES USED FOR
survivorship curves allow us to predict the number of deaths
TYPE 1: these are the the species that where young have high survivorship
- have low/ few offspring
example. humans or larger mammals
TYPE 2:
- survivorship is independent of the age
- few offspring
- reptiles, birds ext. ectotherms
TYPE 3: these have a low survivorship or mortality
- lots of offspring
example plants and insects and fish
78
the optimal resolution of these tradeoffs determine life history traits like at what age should an individual begin to produce offspring?
- earlier you reproduce the smaller the adult size
- but smaller organisms within the same species produce fewer offspring
- tradeoff: breed early or breed lots
- there is an optimal reproductive age because cost of reproduction is higher in younger/ older animals
79
the optimal resolution of these tradeoffs determine life history traits like how often should you reproduce?
- number of reproductive episodes
tradeoff: breed now and die soon or wait and have more babies
- current fecundity and adult survival and future fecundity
- organisms with a lower probability of surviving to another year may maximize reproductive success by investing more in their current effort
- organisms with potentially long life spans do not generally increase current fecundity enough to jeopardize future reproduction
80
the optimal resolution of these tradeoffs determine life history traits like how many offspring per breeding episode?
- increased offspring means increased energy required
- trade-off: fewer babies but more successful ones
81
the optimal resolution of these tradeoffs determine life history traits like how much parental care should you give?
- size of offspring and age at onset of reproduction:
- size of the offspring is inversely promotional to its quality and survival rate
- generally speaking organisms with type 3 survivorship curves have large offspring and type 1 and 2 small to medium-sized ones. Age at onset of reproduction results in true-off between leaving less offspring and gaining life experience and physical fitness to produce a better quality offspring (by accumulation of more energy into the offspring or by taking better care of it)
82
what are life history tables?
- these tables summarize the information on age structure, size, life-history (reproductive) stage, and survivorship of a population
- used to predict how a population will change overtime
- useful in managing :
- crops/livestock
- conservation
- pest/weed control
83
on a life history table what does each stand for?
X ?
nx?
sx?
lx?
mx?
R0?
x= age
nx= number of females at each age (x)
sx= survival rate from one age to the next
Ix= survivorship (fraction of original cohort still alive)
mx- fecundity
R0= net reproductive rate ( avg # female offspring per female in cohort over the cohort's lifespan)
you find this my multiplying (lx)(mx)
84
what does it mean when R0 is =1, >1, <1
R0=1 (0.95~1.05)
R0>1 POPULATION GROWING
R0<1 POPULATION DECREASING
85
What are the most important variables in a population?
- size (number of individuals)
- density ( number of individuals/unit area)
- dispersion ( pattern of spacing among individuals, clumped or random)
86
when is a population growth exponential?
- when there are unlimited resources, and the rated of immigration and emigration balance each other out, this is also known as a J-SHAPED CURVE)
87
what does b stand for?
per capita birth rate
b= B total number of births /N (population size)
88
what does d stand for?
per capita death rate
d= total number of deaths (D)/ number of things in population or population size
89
what does dN stand for ?
population size increase and decrease
90
what is Rmax?
intrinsic rate of increase = (birth rate- death rate)
- the maximum growth rate, refers to the highest possible rate of population increase under ideal environmental conditions with no limiting factors
91
how can we use per capita growth rate to predict population size?
r= b-d
r=0 rate birth/death the same
b>d (+) increase population size
d
92
how do you calculate the change in population size?
number of individuals added or removed not new population size
- dN/dt= rN0
93
Explain the difference between exponential and logistic models of population growth
exponential : never will ever happen
- under ideal conditions
- the per capita growth rate (r) will be at a maximum for that population
- in this model, rmax is always (+) and always constant over time
rmax ~ 100 for bacteria
humans rmax ~ 0.0003
as size increases and generation time increases rmax decreases.
logistic :
- per capita growth rate changes over time
-takes carrying capacity into consideration
- as populations grow, death rates increase, and birth rates decrease
- r decrease as the population goes +reaches 0 @K
rt= rmax(K-Nt)/K)
94
what limits population growth?
energy input or energy available
- temperature
-shelter
-predation
- water
95
what is it called when an environment can only support a certain population size?
carrying capacity (K)
- Which means under real conditions
- as area gets close to carrying capacity it gets more restricted
96
how close the population size (N) is to the carrying capacity (k) changes the per capital growth rate true or false?
true
97
explain the different points on a logistic growth curve from r changes with N .
1. When population size is low what happens to the r max
2. when there are more # of organisms what happens?
3. what happens when you reach carrying capacity
4. when it exceeds carrying capacity
1. it is high since there is more room for increase in size it also means r>0
2. the value of N increases, the value of r decreases. this means number of individuals being born decrease and number of indivudlas dying increase
4. N=K
r=0
number of birth = number of deaths
its steady
- can't support anymore but can support what we have
5. r<0
when N>k
- when greater than k, PER CAPITA GROWTH RATE IS LESS THAN ZERO SINCE TOO MANY INDIVIUDALS TO SUPPORT
- POPULATION DECLINE
98
Differentiate between density-dependent and density-independent factors and explain how each type of factor can influence growth
Density-dependent factors influence population growth based on the population's density. Examples include competition for resources, predation, and disease spread. As the population increases, these factors tend to limit growth more significantly.
Density-independent factors affect population growth regardless of its density. These are typically environmental variables such as weather events, natural disasters, and temperature extremes, impacting populations without relation to their size.
In essence, density-dependent factors adjust the growth rate based on how crowded a population is, while density-independent factors can impact a population no matter how many individuals there are.
99
compare and contrast r-selected and K -selected species?
r-selected:
- low survivorship
- never reach K (r is always high)
- survive by sheer numbers
K-selected:
- high survivorship
- fluctuate around K
- survive by successfully competing for resources
100
what are primary producers
these are autotrophic organisms that fix inorganic nutrients into organic
- they carry out primary productivity
- primary productivity is the rate at which energy is fixed
101
what is gross primary production?
Gross primary production (GPP) is the total amount of energy that plants in an ecosystem capture and convert into chemical energy through photosynthesis over a given period of time.
102
what is NET primary production
is the total amount of energy fixed into organic molecules in an ecosystem
- you find this by what the producer makes minus what the producer uses for itself
ERMR-EACTVITY
OR
NET PRIMARY PRODUCTION= GROSS PRIMARY PRODUCTION - R
R= ENERGY USED BY THE PLANT FOR RESPIRATION
103
Describe the factors that influence rates of primary and secondary production
1. temperature
2. precipitation
3. nutrient uptake nitrogen exc.
4. photoperiod
Nutrient Availability: Plants need nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus to grow. If these are scarce, plant growth is limited.
- nitrogen limiting on terrestrial but in oceans high
- water soluble flow in oceans and lakes
- phosphorus is limiting in aquatic environments increase phosphorus increase primary production
Temperature: Plants have a preferred temperature range for optimal growth. Too hot or too cold can reduce their ability to function and grow.
Precipitation: Water is essential for photosynthesis. Lack of water can make plants close their leaves and slow down growth.
Photoperiod/light: The amount of daily sunlight affects how much energy plants can produce. Longer daylight hours generally increase photosynthesis.
104
explain why most ecosystems are based on photoautotrophs
the primary produces carved energy from the sun to convert it into biomass, and the extent of photosynthetic activity will set the energy budget for the entire ecosystem
105
what is primary consumers ?
these are the second trophic level (herbivores)
- organisms that consume the organic molecules (biomass) of primary producers
- use the energy to support its energy budget
- excess will be turned into biomass
- biomass production is called secondary production
106
what is secondary/ teritary consumers?
third/fourth trophic level
- organism that consume the organic molecules (biomass) of consumers in a lower trophic level
- omnivores eat both producers and consumers
- use the energy consumed to support its energy budget
- excess will be turned into new biomass
biomass production is called secondary production
107
what are the decomposers or the detritivores?
- organisms that consume the dead organic matter of primary producers, primary consumers
- eat all of the other trophic levels
decomposers- the microorganisms that carry out decomposition
detritivores: organisms that eat decomposers
108
what os ecological efficiency?
Ecological efficiency refers to the percentage of energy transferred from one trophic level to the next in an ecosystem. Typically, only about 10% of the energy consumed is converted into biomass and made available to the next trophic level, with the remainder lost as heat through metabolic processes.
- based on secondary production
to find the efficiency go the lower box divided by the above box
109
short term carbon cycle vs long term carbon cycle
short term: is on a scale of days to hundreds of years, it involves the rapid exchange of carbon among the atmosphere, terrestrial land, and surface of ocean layers.
influences by deforestation and fossil fuels, combustion
- annual isolation increase in co2 concentrations
Long term: operates on a scale of thousands to millions of years, involves the movement of carbon between the surface of earth including oceans and the earth's
- incorporates the sedimentations, volcanic activity etc.
110
what is anthropogenic
anything humans cause
111
