Final Exam Flashcards
Stress
A response elicited when a situation overwhelms a person’s perceived ability to meet the demands of a situation.
Fight or Flight
Fight: Triggered by aggression and evolved to defend territorial boundaries or attack aggressors.
Flight: Induced by fear and evolved to enable prolonged movement to run away or hide/withdraw from threat.
(Walter Cannon)
General Adaptation Syndrome
3 inherent stages to body’s reaction to stress: alarm,resistance and exhaustion.(Hans Selye)
Alarm Phase
The theat is perceived and the nervous system is triggered for survival.
Resistance Phase
Body tries to recover and revert back to the state of physiological calm or homeostatis, by resisting the alarm.
Exhaustion Phase
Final stage in which one or more target organs show signs of dysfunction.
The SNS Response
Is the activation of the Sympathetic Nervous System.
The Endocrine Response
Two pathways: SAM and HPAC.
SAM: Sympathadreno-Medulary System- Sympathetic Nervous System, Adrenal Medulla, Catecolamines(Epinephrine, Norepinephrine)-Fight or Flight.
HPAC: Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal-Cortical-Sympathetic Nervous System,Hypothalamus,Pituitary gland, Adrenal cortex-cortisol-increased energy & protection from tissue inflammation.
Internal Locus of Control vs External Locus of Control
Internal Control:Belief that a person is responsible for what happens to them.
External Locus of Control:Belief that a person’s life is controlled by luck, fate, or other people.
Primary vs Secondary Control
Primary Control: An effort to modify reality by changing other people, the situation, or events. Primarily in Western Cultures. “Fighting Back” Philosophy.
Secondary Control: An effort to accept reality by changing your own attitudes,goals, or emotions. Primarily in Eastern Cultures. “ Learn to live with it” Philosophy.
Hostility and Heart Disease
The higher the hostility the higher rate of heart disease later on in life. Hostility is more hazardous than a heavy workload.
Risk Factors of Illness
Environmental: Poverty, Exposure to Toxins ,Crime.
Experiential: Childhood neglect, Traumatic Events, Chonic Job Stress, Unemployment.
Biological: Viral or Bacterial Infections, Disease, Genetic Vulnerability.
Psychological: Hostility,Chronic Major Depression, Pessimism, Feeling Powerless.
Behavioral: Smoking, Poor Diet, Lack of Exercise, Lack of Sleep, Alcohol Abuse.
Social: Lack of Supportive Friends, Bitter Relationship.
Coping with Stress
Ways of dealing with stress. For example problem focused and emotional focused.
Problem Focused Coping: Involves thoughts and actions towards solving the problems causing distress.
Emotional Focused Coping: Is aimed at reducing the negative emotions associated with the problem.
Expressive Writing
An effective form of expression. A way of confiding undisclosed secrets. Enables to form a coherent narrative of the traumatic experience. Reframing and requires no feedback. Revealing pent-up thoughts is liberating. ( James Pennebaker)
Psychosomatic Theory
Idea that emotional factors can lead to the occurrence or worsening of illness.
Physiological Reactivity Model
Examines how sustained physiological activation associated with the stress response can affect body systems to increase illness.
Psychological Risk Factors for Heart Disease
Type A and Anger: People with Type A Behavior Pattern are at greater risk for heart disease- Impatient, Competitive, Rushed for Time & Hostile.
Lifestyle Choices as a Health Risk
Smoking, Drinking Alcohol raise your health risks.
For example smoking reduces life expectancy by an average of 10 years. Secondhand smoke can carry as much risk as actively smoking.
Alcohol is a depressant and in excess can cause cirrhosis. Moderate consumption may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease.
Personality
The unique and relatively enduring set of behaviors, thoughts, motives, and emotions that characterize an individual over time and across different situations.
Trait
A characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking and feeling.
Psychodynamic Theories
Theories that explain behavior and personality in terms of unconscious energy dynamics within the individual.
Psychoanalysis
A theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy developed by Sigmund Freud. Emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts.
Id
Operates according to the pleasure principle. Primitive, unconscious part of personality.
Ego
Operates according to the reality principle. Mediates between id and superego.
Superego
Moral ideals, conscience.
Defense Mechanisms
Methods used by the ego to prevent unconscious anxiety or threating thoughts from entering consciousness.
Repression
Threating idea, memory, or emotion is blocked from consciousness.
Projection
Person’s own unacceptable feelings are repressed and then attributed to someone else.
Denial
Refusal to admit that something unpleasant is happening as a way to protect self image or illusion of invulnerability.
Displacement
When people direct their emotions(especially anger) toward things, animalsm or other people that are not the real object of their feelings.
Sublimation
A form of displacement in which sexual urges are rechanneled in to productive nonsexual activities.
Undoing
A form of unconscious repentance. Involves making up for an unacceptable action or thought with a second action or thought.
Reaction Formation
Thinking or behaving in a way that is the extreme opposite of unacceptable urges or impulses.
Rationalization
Justifying one’s actions or feelings with socially acceptable explanations rather than consciously acknowledging inner desires.
Regression
When a person reverts to a previous phase of psychological development.
Psychosexual Stages
Oral(birth to age 1): Mouth is primary focus of pleasure/gratification
Anal(ages 1 to 3): Anus is the primary focus of pleasure/gratification
Phallic(ages 3-6): Genitals are the primary focus of pleasure/gratification
Latency(ages 7-11) Sexual impulses are dormant as the child develops same sex friendships with peers, and focuses on school
Genital(adolescence): Genitals are the primary focus of pleasure/gratification; person seeks to sastify heterosexual relationships
Collective Unconscious
The universal memories, symbols, and experiences of the human kind, represented in the archetypes or universal symbolic images that appear in myths, art,stories, and dreams.
Archetypes
Universal, symbolic images that appear in myths, art, stories, and dreams; archetypes reflect the collective unconscious, SHADOW, ANIMA, ANIMUS. (Carl Jung)
The Object-Relations School
A psychodynamic approach that emphasizes the importance of the infant’s first two years of life and the baby’s formative relationships, especially with their mother. Central problem in life is to find the balance between the need for independence and the need for others. Mental representation of the parent-kind or fierce, protective or rejecting- unconsciously affect the personality throughout life.
Objective Tests (Inventories)
Standardized questionnaires requiring written responses. Typically include scales on which people are asked to rate themselves. Assumes that you can accurately report. No right or wrong answers. Well constructed inventories have enabled identification of hundreds of traits. Inventories are generally more reliable and valid than either projective methods or subjective clinical judgements.
The Big Five Personality Traits
Openess to experience vs resistance to new experience( extent to which people are curious, imaginative, questioning and creative or conforming, unimaginative, predictable, and uncomfortable with novelty.)
Conscientiousness vs impulsivity(extent to which people are responsiblem persevering, steadfast, tidy, self disciplined versus undependable, quick to give up, fickle, careless, impulsive)
Extroversion vs introversion(extent to which people are outgoing or shy)
Agreeableness vs antagonism(extent to which people are good natured, cooperative, secure versus irritable, abrasive, suspicious/jealous.)
Neuroticsim vs emotional stability( negative emotionally versus emotional stability)
Social Cognitive Theory
Theory of personality which emphasizes on observational learning conscious cognitive processes, social experiences, self-efficacy beliefs, and reciprocal determinism.
Reciprocal Determinism
Two-way interaction between aspects of the environment and aspects of the individual in the shaping of personality traits.
Self-Efficacy
A person’s belief that he or she is capable of producing desired results, such as mastering new skills and reaching goals. Our beliefs influences our capabilities of completing and persevering in tasks.
Temperaments
Physiological dispositions to respond to the environment in certain ways: present in infancy, assumed to be innate. Relatively stable over time.(Reactivity, Soothability, Positive and negative emotionality)
Influence of Parents
The shared environment of the home has little influence on personality
The Power of Peers
Peers play a tremendous roule in shaping our personality traits and behavior, causing us to emphasize some attributes or abilities and downplay others. Our temperaments and dispositions also cause us to select particular peer groups instead of others, and our temperaments influence how we behave within the group.
Cultural Influences on Personality
A Culture is a program of shared rules that govern the behavior of members of a community or society. A set of values, beliefs, and attitudes shared by most members of that community.
Individualist Culture
Cultures in which the self is regarded as autonomous and individual goals and wishes are prized above duty and relations with others.
Collectivist Culture
Cultures in which the self is regarded as embedded in relationships, and harmony with one’s group is prized above individual goals and wishes.
Aggressiveness & Culture of Honor
Emphasis on aggressiveness and vigilance in herding cultures, creates culture of honor. Used to explain increased likelihood of fighting in the South and the West, versus the North and Midwest.
Humanistic Psychology
An approach that emphasizes personal growth, resilience, and the achievement of human potential.
Self-Actualization
Striving for a life that is meaningful,challenging,and satisfying.
The Fully Functioning Person
Perceives the world accurately, without neurotic distortion or self doubt, and takes responsibility of his or her choices. (Carl Rogers)
Unconditional Positive Regard
Basic acceptance and support of a person regardless of what the person says or does.
Conditions of Worth
If a person has experience unconditional positive regard from important people(e.g., parents), he or she will not develop conditions of worth.
Humanistic Psychotherapy
- Based on the importance of authentic communication between the therapist and the client to: -Help the client perceive his or her own thoughts and feelings without the therapist trying unilaterally to change them in any way(i.e., the therapist must be a good listener). -Make the client feel appereciated no matter what he or she thinks,says, or does.
- This time-consuming process promotes insight and the removal of conditions of worth, according to Rogers’ theory, and helps the client become a fully functioning person.
Positive Psychology
The belief that a psychology of positive human functioning will arise, which achieves a scientific understanding and effective interventions to build thriving individuals, families, and communities.
Assumptions:
-Positive is not just the absence of negative
-Positive emotions and traits are essential in preventing problems, coping with problems, and recovery from problems.
-An emphasis on strengths and potentials might prove more effective that the “fixing what is wrong” approach.
Classification of Character Strengths
- Wisdom & Knowledge: Creativity, curiosity, open-mindedness, love of learning, wise perspective.
- Courage: Bravery,persistence, integrity, vitality.
- Humanity: Love, kindness, social intelligence.
- Justice: Citizenship, fairness, leadership.
- Temperance: Forgiveness/Mercy, humility/modesty, prudence, self regulation/self control
- Transcendence: Appreciation of beauty & excellence(awe, wonder, elevation), gratitude, hope, humor, spirituality.
Life Narrative
The story that each of us develops over time to explain ourselves and make meaning of everything that has happened to us.
Psychopathology
Is the scientific study of the origins, symptoms and development of psychological disorders.
Psychological Disorder
Pattern of behavioral and psychological symptoms that cause significant personal distress,and impairs the ability to function in one or more important areas of life, or both
DSM-IV-R
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. -Describes more than 300 specific psychological disorders. -Includes symptoms, exact criteria for making the diagnosis, and the typical course for each diagnosis.- The first edition was published in 1952
Projective Tests
Psychological tests used to infer a person’s motives and conflicts, and unconscious dynamics on the basis of the person’s interpretation of ambiguous stimuli. Example: Rorschach Inkblot Test- A projective personality test that asks repondents to interpret abstract, symmetrical inkblots.
Anxiety
Is an unpleasant emotional state characterized by physical arousal and feelings of tension, apprehension, and worry.
Anxiety Disorders
A category of psychological disorders in which extreme anxiety is the main diagnostic feature and causes significant disruptions in mental, behavioral, or interpersonal functioning.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
An anxiety disorder characterized by excessive, global, uncontrollable, and persistent symptoms of anxiety. Causes(Genetic predisposition, History of being in uncontrollable environments).
Panic Attack
Is a sudden episode of extreme anxiety that rapidly escalates in intensity(Feeling of impending doom or death). Symptoms include pounding heart, rapid breathing, breathlessness,and a choking sensation.
Panic Disorder
An anxiety disorder in which the person experiences frequent and unexpected panic attacks.
Phobia
Is a persistent and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity.
Agoraphobia
Is a fear of having a panic attack in a place from which escape would be difficult or impossible.
Social Phobia(Social Anxiety Disorder)
An anxiety disorder involving the extreme and irrational fear of being embarrassed, judged, or scutinized by others in social situations. Far more debilitating than the occasional shyness and social anxiety that everyone experiences.
Posttraumantic Stress Disorder(PTSD)
An anxiety disorder in which chronic and persistent symptoms of anxiety develop in response to an extreme physical or psychological trauma. Symptoms include: reliving the trama, sense of detachment from others, increased physiological arousal, insomnia, irritability, and impaired concentration.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder(OCD)
An anxiety disorder in which a person feels trapped in repetitive, persistent thoughts(obsessions) and repetitive ritualized behaviors(compulsions) imperative to reduce anxiety.
Obsessions
Persistent Thoughts.
Compulsions
Repetitive Ritualized Behaviors.
Mood Disorders
A category of mental disorders in which significant and persistent disruptions in mood or emotions cause impaired cognitive,behavioral, and physical functioning. Also called affective disorders.
Major Depression
A mood disorder involving disturbances in emotion(excessive sadness), behavior(loss of intrest in one’s usual activities),cognition(thoughts of hopelessness), and body function(fatigue and loss of appetite). which last a least two weeks. Globally pessimistic and negative thoughts about the self. Suicide is a potential risk in major depression.
Dysthymic Disorder
Chronic, low-grade depression, Less severe form of depression. Characterized by many symptoms of depression, but the symptoms are less intense. Usually develops in response to some stressful event or trauma. Difference between major depression and systhymic disorder: major depression requires symptoms to be present for at least two weeks, while dysthymic disorder requires two years.
Bipolar Disorder
A mood disorder involving periods of severe depression alternating with periods of extreme euphoria and excitment.
Vulnerabilty-Stress Model of Depression
This model explains how a person’s vulnerabilites(e.g. genetic predispositions, personality traits, or habits of thinking) may interact with stressful events(e..g violence, death of a loved one) to produce a case of depression.
Mania
Extreme euphoria and excitment.
Personality Disorders
Rigid, maladaptive patterns that cause personal distress or an inability to get along with others.
Psychopathy
Is a personality disorder characterized by a lack of remorse, empathy, anxiety, and other social emotions;the use of deceit and manipulation;and impulsive thrill seeking. ( Cleckly, 1976)
Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD)
Characterized by a lifelong pattern of irresponsible, antisocial behavior such as lawbreaking, violence, and other impulsive, reckless acts. The DSM IV replaced the term psychopathy with APD.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Grandiose sense of self-importance and self absorption. Characterized by exaggeration of abilities and accomplishments, excessive need for admiration;boastfulness, and pretentiousness.
Borderline Personality Disorder
A personality disorder that characterized by instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and marked impulsivity. Moods and emotions are intense, fluctuating, seemingly uncontrollable, and extremely out of proportion to the triggering incident.
Dissociative Identity Disorder
It is a controversial disorder maked by the apperance within in one person of two or more distinct personalities, each with its own name and traits. Commonly know as Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD)
Dissociative Disorders
Dissociative disorders occur when there are splits or gaps in memory, consciousness, or identity.
Schizophrenia
A psychotic disorder marked by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized, and incoherent speech, inappropriate behavior, and cognitive impairments.
Psychosis
Is an extreme mental disturbance involving distorted perceptions, and irrational behavior.
Somatoform Disorders
Somatoform disorders are marked by physical or bodily symptoms that mimic physical diseases, but have no known physical cause or medical basis.
Childhood Disorders
Are disorders such a ADHD, Autism and Asperger’s Syndrome. They occur before adolescence.
Psychotherapy
The treatment of emotional, behavioral, and interpersonal
problems through the use of psychological techniques designed to:
encourage understanding of problems;
modify troubling feelings, behaviors, or relationships.
Biomedical Therapies
The use of medications, electroconvulsive therapy, or other medical
treatments to treat the symptoms associated with psychological
disorders.
Psychoanalysis
A method of psychotherapy developed by Sigmund Freud that
emphasizes the exploration of unconscious motives and conflicts.
Patients talked about immediate problems, dreams, and memories of childhood.
Freud believed that with insight and emotional release the patient’s symptoms
would disappear.
Free Association
A technique in which the patient
spontaneously reports all thoughts, feelings, and mental
images as they come to mind, as a way of revealing
unconscious thoughts and emotions.
Resistance
The patient’s conscious or unconscious
attempts to block the process of revealing repressed
memories and conflicts.
Dream Interpretation
A technique in which the content
of dreams is analyzed for disguised or symbolic wishes,
meaning, and motivations.
Transference
The process by which the client transfers
unconscious emotions or reactions, such as conflicts with
parents, onto the therapist.
Short-Term Dynamic Therapies
Type of psychotherapy that is based on psychoanalytic
theory but differs in terms of:
• being time limited
• has specific goals
• involves a more active role of the therapist
Interpersonal Therapy
Focuses on current relationships
and is based on the assumption that symptoms are
caused and maintained by interpersonal problems.
Humanistic Therapy
The humanistic perspective
emphasizes on human
potential, self awareness,
and freedom of choice.
Client-Centered Therapy
A method of psychotherapy developed by Carl Rogers in which the client determines the focus and pace of each session
Existential Therapy
A form of therapy designed to help clients explore
the meaning of existence and face the great questions
of life, such as death, freedom, alienation, and
loneliness.
Behavior Therapy
A form of therapy that applies classical and operant
conditioning to help people change self defeating or problematic behaviors.
Counterconditioning
Learning of a new conditioned response that is incompatible with a previously learned response.
Aversive Conditioning
Involves repeatedly pairing an aversive stimulus with the occurrence of undesirable behaviors or thoughts.
Systematic Desensitization
Step-by-step process of breaking down a client’s conditioned associations with a feared object or experience.
Cognitive Therapies
A form of therapies based on the assumption that psychological problems are due to illogical patterns of thinking. Treatment focuses on recognizing and altering these thinking patterns.(Aaron Beck)
Rational Emotive Therapy (RET)
A form of cognitive therapy devised by Albert Ellis in the 1950s. Designed to challenge the client’s irrational beliefs.
Cognitive Therapy
Originally developed to treat depression. Clients learn to explicitly identify and change their automatic negative thoughts.
Commonality with RET in in that people’s thoughts create mood and emotions; helps clients identify faulty thinking.
Unlike RET, CT emphasizes on distorted thinking and unrealistic beliefs, in contrast to ‘irrational thinking.’ The client is encouraged to test the accuracy of the beliefs.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Therapy that integrates
cognitive and behavioral techniques. Based on the assumption
that thoughts, moods, and behaviors are interrelated.
Group Therapy
Group therapy involves
one or more therapists
working simultaneously
with a small group of clients.
Family Therapy
Assumes that problems develop in the context of family, that they are sustained by family dynamics, and that any changes will affect whole family
One method could be to look for patterns of behavior across generations and create a family tree of psychologically significant events.
Antipsychotic Drugs
Include reserpine and chlorpromazine.
Many block or reduce sensitivity of dopamine receptors. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter associated with feelings of reward and pleasure.
Some increase levels of serotonin– a neurotransmitter that inhibits dopamine activity.
Can relieve positive symptoms of schizophrenia, but can be ineffective for—or even worsen—negative symptoms.
Atypical Antipsychotic Drugs
Affect both serotonin and dopamine levels in the brain.
Have fewer side effects and more effective in treating positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia.
Antidepressant Drugs
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI’s)
Elevate norepinephrine and serotonin in brain by blocking an enzyme that deactivates these neurotransmitters.
Norepinephrine is involved in activation of neurons throughout the brain and prepares the body in face of threat.
Serotonin is involved in moods and emotional states. Imbalances in serotonin levels can contribute to depression.
Tricyclic antidepressants
Boost norepinephrine and serotonin by preventing reuptake
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI’s)
Boost serotonin by preventing reuptake
Anti-Anxiety Drugs
Include benzodiazepines (e.g. Valium); effective in the treatment of anxiety but may be addictive.
Developed for treatment of mild anxiety
Often prescribed inappropriately by general practitioners for any patient mood complaints.
Buspirone (Buspar) is a newer antianxiety medication that has a low risk of abuse but takes a few weeks to become effective.
Lithium Carbonate
Used to treat bipolar disorder.
Moderates levels of norepinephrine by protecting cells from being over-stimulated by neurotransmitter glutamate
Must be given in right dose (too little doesn’t help and too much can be toxic)
Newer treatments include Tegetrol and Depakote.
Electroconvulsive Therapy
Procedure used in cases of prolonged and severe major depression
Brief brain seizure is induced.
The mood-improving effect of ECT is usually short-lived, and the depression almost always returns within a few weeks or months.
Therapeutic Alliance
The bond of confidence and mutual understanding established between
therapist and client, which allows them to work together to solve the
client’s problems.
When there is a cultural match, clients and psychotherapists are more likely to share perceptions of what the client’s problem is, agree on the best way of coping, and have the same expectations about what therapy can accomplish.
Good outcomes follow when there is recognition of the utility of a combination of therapies and that certain therapies are more appropriate for specific problems
Benefits of Therapy
Being in presence of a knowledgeable and empathic practitioner can help make decisions and clarify goals.
Learn new skills and new ways of thinking.
Help get along better with family and break destructive family patterns.
Cannot change personalities, but can teach to manage negative states and emotions.
Harms of Therapy
Use of empirically unsupported, potentially dangerous
therapeutic techniques.
Inappropriate or coercive influence, which can create new
problems for the client.
Prejudice or cultural ignorance on the part of the therapist.
Unethical conduct.
