FINAL EXAM Flashcards
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| 1. What are the parts of a neuron? (e.g. soma, dendrites)</p>
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Dendrites- built to receive information Presynaptic terminal- holds the vesicles of neuro transmitters Axon: carries information away from the neuron<br></br>
Soma - the cell body </p>
- What is myelination? How does it impact propagation of an action potential?
Increase membrane resistance which decreases leaking of charges across the membrane. Heavier myelination = a faster conductance.
- If the inside of the cell is negative relative to the outside of the cell and there is a greater concentration of sodium outside the cell, which way will sodium move when sodium ion channels are opened?
Inside
- What is an equillibrium potential
The amount of membrane voltage that balances the concentration gradient force (Balance)
- What is resting membrane potential?
When the neuron is at rest and no longer permeable
- What is the difference between an ion channel and an ion pump?
Ion channels- Can be opened or closed, dependent on forces to move, and selective (built for certain types of ions)
Ion pumps- moves ion against gradients, uses ATP, and is also selective
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7. How does the nervous system code for intensity of a stimulus if an action potential is always the same size and same duration?</p>
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| temporal and spatial summation</p>
- What is depolarization?
A brief change, the inside of the cell becomes less negative and more excitable
- What is hyperpolarization?
Brief change, the inside of the cell becomes more negative and more inhibitory
- What is the difference between a local potential and an action potential?
Local potential- Grades in a different size and duration, additive, smaller than an action potential, spreads only a small distance
Action potential- always the same size and duration, “all or nothing”, and can be repeatedly regenerated along a long distance
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| 11. Where do local potentials happen?</p>
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Receptor potentials: sensory receptors stimulated, mostly depolarizing (toward -55 threshold), different size potentials depending on strength of stimulus andSynaptic potentials: one neuron stimulates the next, depolarizing or hyperpolarizing, more neurotransmitter released into synapse the greater the potential</p>
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| 12. What are the different ways that an ion channel can be gated and where are they located?</p>
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Modiality-gated channels: open in response to a mechanical, temperature, or chemical stimulus. Located in the receptor part of a sensory neuron. Ligand-gated channels: Ion channels that open in response to a chemical binding to its surface. Located in the post-synaptic membrane.</p>
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</p>
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voltage-gated ion channels- open in response to depolarization that reaches threshold, located in axon</p>
- What is spatial and temporal summation?
Spatial- Multiple presynaptic channels open, using more space, more likely to reach threshold.
Temporal- 3action potential hit a presynaptic channel in quick timing, create a larger depolarization- more likely to reach threshold.
- What are the steps of an action potential?
Sensory receptor is stimulated, modality gated ion channels open- causing a change in voltage, voalted gated ion channel opens, s.cord causes a synapse releasing neurotransmitters-ligangated ion channels open, then voltage.
- How does an increase in diameter of the axon impacts propagation?
It makes it more rapid- increased diameter of the axon (decreases axoplasmic resistance that allows a faster flow)
- Synapses can occur
a. Axon to dendrite
b. Axon to soma
c. Axon to axon
- What are the parts of a synapse? (e.g. pre- and post-synaptic membranes, vesicles)
Presynaptic terminal- vesicles
Postsynaptic terminal- Receptors (key-in lock, open ion channels-ligand gated, change in activity within postsynaptic cell), synaptic cleft.
- What are the steps to a synapse?
Action potential arrives, voltage-gated calcium channels open, movement of synaptic vesicles and release of neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft, neurotransmitter binds to receptor and changes its shape, opens ion channel
- What is an EPSP?
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential- cause muscle contraction- causes a small depolarization of membrane
- What is an IPSP?
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential- causes a small hyperpolarization of membrane
- What is a NT agonist?
Agonist- another chemical that had a similar effect as the neurotransmitter (opens receptor)
- What is a NT antagonist?
Antagonist- blocks the action of the neurotransmitter (sits on the receptor and closes it)
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| 23. What are some common NT?</p>
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a. Acetylcholine – at neuromuscular junctions i. What is nicotine?- Agonist ii. What is botox?- Antagonist b. GABA – major source of inhibition in the CNS- Valium, baclofen, phenobarbital c. Glutamate – major source of excitation in the CNS- seizures d. Substance P – carries pain information- fibromyalgia e. Serotonin – low levels are implicated in depression and suicide i. What is an SSRI?- proxac, zoloft ii. What is tryptophan?- Precursor to serotonin</p>
1) What are the 3 types of somatosensory pathways?
Conscious
Divergent
Subconscious
2) Where in the brain do we get conscious awareness?
Cerebrum
3) What is meant by high fidelity?
It has little divergence, sends info to specific areas of the brain, somatotopically arranged.
4) What is meant by somatotopical arrangement?
It describes the organization of the motor area of the brain, and the specific and the specific regions of cortex be responsible for specific body structure.
5) DCML
a) what type of neurons?
b) what type of sensation?
c) what is the pathway?
A-alpha and B-beta fibers (fast)
Discriminative or localized touch
Conscious
6) Spinothalamic pathway
a) what type of neurons?
b) what type of sensation?
c) what is the pathway?
A-delta and C fibers
Pain and temperature that can be localized
Conscious
7) What is the trigeminal lemniscal tract? What is its pathway?
Similar to the DCML and Neospinothalamic tract but for the face
Conscious
8) How do divergent pathways differ from conscious pathways?
The can be conscious and subconscious
Have low fidelity (not somatotopically arranged)
9) What type of neurons does divergent pathways use?
C-Fibers : thin and unmylinated
10) What type of sensation does divergent pathways carry?
Conscious and subconscious
11) What is the purpose of the
a. spinolimbic
b. spinoreticular
spinomesencephalic
Projects to the thalamus and then to cortical areas for emotion, sensory, interergration, personality, and movement.
Arousal, autonomic, and affective responses to pain.
b) Spinoreticular
Connects pain information with reticular formations
Impacts arousal attention and sleep/wake cycles
c) Spinomesencephalic
Connects pain information with tracts arising from the midbrain to impact reflexive turning of the eyes and head to a source of pain
Descending pain control system from periaqueductal gray.
12) What is the counterirritant theory of pain?
Stimulation of mechanoreceptors/pathways cause the release of enkephalins in the dorsal horn (“rub” to decrease pain)
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| 13) What is the purpose of the raphespinal and cereulospinal pathways?</p>
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| Descending paths that help modulate pain </p>
14) What is the difference between nocioceptive and neuropathic pain?
Nocioceptive: continued stimulation due to trauma or disease (tumor)
Neuropathic: produces by pathologic neural activity (CVA, fibromyalga)
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| 15) What is the function of the PSCT and CCT tracts? a) what are their pathways?</p>
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High fidelity, subconscious pathways from periphery to cerebellum about posture and movement. They translate what did happen</p>
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| 16) What is the function of the ASCT and the RSCT tracts? a) what are their pathways?</p>
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Anterior spinocerebellar tract = proprioceptive info from trunk and lower limb to SCP -Cerebellum<br></br>
Posterior (ROSTRAL?) spinocerebellar tract =proprioceptive info from trunk and lower to ICP- Cerebellum</p>
at is the difference between sensory and cerebellar ataxia?
Sensory: ataxia due to loss of proprioception
Cerebellar: due to a cerebellar lesion
18) Where are the cell bodies of all somatosensory primary afferents?
DRG
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| 19) What is difference between phasic and tonic sensory receptors?</p>
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Rate of adaptation[edit]<br></br>
A tonic receptor is a sensory receptor that adapts slowly to a stimulus[3] and continues to produce action potentials over the duration of the stimulus.[4] In this way it conveys information about the duration of the stimulus. Some tonic receptors are permanently active and indicate a background level. Examples of such tonic receptors are pain receptors, joint capsule, and muscle spindle.[5]<br></br>
A phasic receptor is a sensory receptor that adapts rapidly to a stimulus. The response of the cell diminishes very quickly and then stops.[3] It does not provide information on the duration of the stimulus;[4] instead some of them convey information on rapid changes in stimulus intensity and rate.[5] An example of a phasic receptor is the Pacinian corpuscle.<br></br>
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20) What do mechanoreceptors respond to?
Physical
21) What do nocioceptors respond to?
Needed for pain- pain thereatened to be damaged or damaged tissue
22) What are the receptors for temperature?
Thermoreceptors
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| 23) What is the impact of the release of prostaglandins from injured tissue in nocioceptors?</p>
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| Decreases the threshold for pain so you can feel pain quicker</p>
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| 24) What are all the areas that contribute to musculoskeletal sensation?</p>
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Cutaneous (stretch and pressure), joint receptors (mechano & free nerve endings), muscle spindles (stretch and velocity), Positive feedback- autogenic facilitation/DTR</p>
25) What sensations are detected by nuclear bags and nuclear chains?
Changes in muscle length and velocity of change
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| 26) Why does intrafusal muscles contract the same time as extrafusal muscle?</p>
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Maintain sensitivity to receptor through ROM </p>
27) What is the sensory receptor for autogenic inhibition?
GTO
28) What two cranial nerves enter directly into the cerebrum?
Olfactory, Optic
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| 29) What cranial nerve comes from the posterior side of the brainstem?</p>
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<br></br>
trochlear nerve</p>
30) What cranial nerve comes from outside of the cranium?
Spinal Accessory
31) How does “branchial motor” differ from somatomotor?
Brachial- brachial arches of embro
Somatomotor- comes from somites of the embro, voluntary striated muscle
32) How does “special sensory” differ from somatosensory?
Special- only a cranial nerve function
Somato- CN or SN
33) What is meant by “bilateral innervation”? How does that impact function after a CVA?
That the areas are innervated bi laterally and can work both sides, “back up” if a stroke occurs innervation can still occur.
34) What is the pathway for the sense of smell?
Olfactory, sensory pathway a) Does it go to the thalamus? Does not travel to the thalamus b) Does it stay ipsilateral? Yes c) What is the name of the bone that the first order neurons go through? Cribafrom plate
35) What are some of the cerebral connections for smell?
Medial temporal lobe
36) What is the most common pathology interfering with the sense of smell?
Allergies
37) What is visual acuity?
How clear or sharp you see something.
38) What is visual field?
Range that you can see w/o moving your eyeball. 50-60 in center when both eyes see.
39) What are the parts of the eye?
Cornea- clear covering of the eye Iris- colores part of the eye (muscle sphincter) Pupil-allows light in Cornea Retna Optic disk- optic nerve attachment Fovea centrailiss- all cones Macula lute- central vision
40) Which part of the tectum is involved in vision?
Superior colliculi
41) What is the purpose of the retinogeniculocalcarine pathway?
Conscious vision
42) What is an anopsia? hemianopsia? quadrantoanopsia?
Anopsia: Loss of vision in one whole eye- Prior to the optic chiasm
Hemianopsia: Lose half of vision in both eyes- at the optic chiasim
Quadrantonanopsia: Loose a quadrant of vision- Occurs after the synapse (myers lope)
a) What damage in the visual pathway causes each of these problems?
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| 43) What two components are in cranial nerves but not in spinal nerves? Brachial Motor and Special Sensory</p>
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| Branchial motor muscle and special sensory components</p>
44) What is the difference between the retinogeniculocalcarine pathway and the tectal pathway?
Retino- Concious vision
Tectal- orients to visual stimuli
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45) What is the pathway of the pupillary reflex? What type of damage will cause a loss of direct, consensual, neither, or both reactions?</p>
<p> <br /> :<br /> Optic Nerve </p> ,
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46) Damage to the left optic tract between the optic chiasm and the lateral geniculate body would result in a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ .</p>
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Hemianopsia<br></br>
</p>
47) What muscle is innervated by the trochlear nerve?
Superior oblique
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| 48) What does the Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus connect?</p>
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Connects between occulomotor, troclear & abducens to vestibular and accessory nuclei & superior colliculus=turn head </p>
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| 49) What nerve innervated the iris of the eye?</p>
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| oculomotor</p>
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| 50) A puff of air hits my eye and makes me blink. What nerve carries the afferent information for this reflex?</p>
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Optic, efferent= facial </p>
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| 51) What is the pathway of the accommodation reflex?</p>
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Stim=image on retina, rec=photo rec of retina, aff=optic, eff=occulomotor= changes shape of lens via cilliary mm, eyes converge via medial rectus mm, pupil constrict activation of iris </p>
52) What is the difference between the different types of eye movements (conjugate, vergent, pursuit, and saccadic)?
Conjugate- move in the same direction
Vergent- move in different directions
Pursuit- slow smooth mvt. Following a moving stimulus
Saccadic- fast jerkey mvt. Following a moving stim.
53) What nerve innervates the muscles of mastication?
Trigeminal
54) What is bilateral innervation? Which nerves have it?
Trigeminal, Facial, Optic
55) Name three situations where a nystagmus can be normal?
End range, post-rotary- spinning around, optokinetic: trying to follow a moving target
56) Your patient has facial paralysis due to a right-sided stroke. Where will you see symptoms of the facial paralysis?
Left lower
57) What two nerves innervate salivatory glands?
Facial, glossopharyngeal
58) What is the pathway of auditory information to the brain?
Organ of corti to the cocular nuclei reticular formation, inferior coliculous, medial negiculate body, auditory cortex
59) What is the vestibular-ocular reflex (VOR)?
As you move your head it moves eyeballs in opposite direction to maintain visual fixation on a target
60) Which damaged nerve would cause difficulty swallowing and a hoarse voice?
vagus
61) What two nerves provide sensory information about taste?
Hypoglossal, facial
62) What two nerves provide information about blood pressure?
Vagus and glossophyaryngeal
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| 63) What is the difference between sensorineural and conductive deafness?</p>
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Conductive – louder in same side Sensorineural- louder in opposite side- nerve damage, Conducive= sound waves aren't getting to cochlea<br></br>
Sensorineural= cochlea or pathway to brain is affected</p>
64) How does the cochlear nerve transmit information about loudness of a sound?
It depends on the frequency of action potentials
65) Information going to the primary auditory cortex is for what function?
Tone and basic info about what we are hearing
66) What part of the thalamus receives information about hearing?
Medial geniculate body
67) Where are there calcium salt crystals in your head?
The otoconia, on top of the gelatinous membrane on the otolithic organs (utricle, sacule)
68) The LMNs for the Accessory Nerve receives innervation from contralateral, ipsilateral, or bilateral UMNs?
contralateral
69) What kind of deviation would a right-sided UMN lesion to the Hypoglossal nerve cause when the patient stuck out their tongue?
Right (deviates to the weak side)
70) What is it called when a person with a T6 SCI experiences a pounding headache and elevated blood pressure?
Autonomic dysreflexia
71) What should you do during an episode of autonomic dysreflexia?
Find and fix the stimulus, elevate head
72) Which cranial nerves contain visceral efferents?
Vagus
73) The “master controller” of homeostasis is the _______.
Autonomic nervous system
74) How many neurons make up the peripheral pathway of the ANS?
2
the preganglionic neuron myelinated or unmyelinated?
Myelinated
76) Where are the preganglionic cell bodies located for the sympathetic division of the ANS?
Brainstem or spinal cord
77) Blood vessels received ________ innervation from the ANS.
Tonic
78) What is the main purpose of the parasympathetic division of the ANS?
Rest and digest
79) What are the signs of sympathetic activation?
Fight and flight responses
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| 81) What are the 4 pathways of sympathetic innervation?</p>
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<br></br>
1. synapse with a post-ganglionic neuron in the paravertebral ganglion on that spinal level<br></br>
2. Synapse with a post-ganglionic neuron in the paravertebral ganglia on a different spinal level<br></br>
3.Pass through without synapsing and go to the PREvertebal ganglia in the abdomen<br></br>
4.Pass through without synapsing and goes directly to the adrenal glands </p>
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| 81) What is the difference between prevertebral and paravertebral neural structures?</p>
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<br></br>
PREvertebral ganglia direct neuronal signal to the abdominal and pelvic organs<br></br>
Paravertebral ganglia run along the length of the spinal cord </p>
82) What is referred pain?
Pain awareness felt in a different area then the injury
83) Describe or draw the 4 possible efferent pathways for the sympathetic system.
Synapse with a post ganglionic neuron in the paravaterbral ganglion on that spinal level
Synapse with a post ganglionic neuron in the paravertebral ganglia on different spinal level
Pass through without synapsing and go to perevertebral ganglia in the abdomen
Pass through without synapsing and goes directly to the adrenal glands
84) Compare the anatomical structure and location of the 2 divisions of the ANS.
?
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| 85) Compare the function of the 2 divisions of the ANS.</p>
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Sympathetic= flight fight<br></br>
Parasympathetic= rest/ digest</p>
86) What is the purpose of the blood brain barrier? What creates the BBB?
Protects the CNS and consistent environment
Formed by tight junctions between endothelial cells, glial cells
87) Identify the main arteries of the brain in a picture.
…
88) Which artery perfuses the majority of the lateral surface of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes?
Middle cerebral arteries
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| 89) What structure produces CSF? Where is it found?</p>
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,<br></br>
choroid plexus is in the ventricls </p>
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| 90) Follow a drop of CSF from production in a lateral ventricle to the internal jugular vein.</p>
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:<br></br>
Lateral ventricles-interventricular foramina-third ventricle-cerebral aqueduct-fourth ventricle-subarachnoid space-arachnoid granulations-dural sinuses-transverse sinus-internal jugular vein </p>
91) Why does a stroke involving the anterior cerebral artery cause greater deficit in the lower extremity than the upper extremity?
Bc that’s the humuculs of the sensory and motor area of the LE
92) What causes hydrocephaly? What is used to treat hydrocephaly?
Shunt, inability to drain CSF
93) How does the term “Limbic” describe the relative function and anatomical location of the limbic system?
Means border, between the newer and older structures of the brain. “Emotional”
94) Describe how we use the somatic marker hypothesis?
We imagine the consequences, & pros and cons, and go off those emotional reactions.
95) Explain the role of the hypothalamus when I eat when I am hungry versus when I eat because I am upset.
Hypothalamus you eat bc you are hungry, and the limbic system causes you to eat because of feelings.
96) How does the limbic system impact social behavior?
Interpretation and forming of social behaviors
97) What are levels of hypoarousal?
Restlessness, agitation, delirium
98) What is delirium?
Being confused and agitated
99) What is the ARAS? How can it impact consciousness?
Ascending Reticular Activating System
Acts as an on/off switch for arousal and controls the sleep wake/cycle
1) Decreased response with repeated stimulation is called _____.
Habituation
2) Motor learning is also referred to as _________ learning.
Procedural
3) The circuit in the brain believed to be responsible for motor learning is ______.
Frontothalamocstriatial circuit
4) The ______ is responsible for transforming memories to be stored in the cerebral cortex.
Hiipacampus
5) Your memory of an apple is distributed throughout your cerebral cortex. This is called _________.
Hebbs cell assembly
6) If you cannot form new memories, this is called _______ amnesia
Anteriograde
7) Can emotional memories exist without declarative memories?
yes
8) If a nerve is severed, degeneration of the distal segment is called _______.
wallerin degeneration
uring nerve compression, which sensations are typically lost first?
vibration
11) When an intact neuron grows a new axonal branch to innervate a denervated target, it is called _________.
collateral regrowth
12) What is learned non-use and constraint-induced therapy?
use the affected side
