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Final exam Flashcards

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1
Q

Define cognition

A

Any type of mental activity

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2
Q

Who was Wilhelm Wundt

A

Founder of experimental psychology, studied introspection

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3
Q

What did Hermann Ebbinghaus study?

A

Studied human memory

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4
Q

Mary Calkins

A

Reported a memory phenomenon called the recency effect

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5
Q

William James

A

Theorized about everyday psychological experiences

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6
Q

Fredrick Bartlett found that

A

people make systematic errors when trying to recall stories due to the influence of schemas on memory integration

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7
Q

What is behaviorism

A

A way of studying psychology which focuses on observable reactions to stimuli in the environment

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8
Q

What is gestalt psychology?

A

Emphasizes that humans have a basic tendency to organize what is seen, and that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Criticized introspection for breaking up experiences into parts and behaviorism for ignoring context of behavior

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9
Q

What is the cognitive revolution?

A

A strong shift away from behaviorist approaches towards organism internal processes

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10
Q

Define ecological validity

A

Studies are high in ecological validity if the conditions in which the research is conducted are similar to the natural setting where the results will be applied

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11
Q

What does the computer metaphor say? What is similar about brains and computers?

A

Our cognitive processes work like a computer. Both computers and human brains have limited capacities

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12
Q

What are the two arguments of the information-processing approach?

A

1) our mental operations are similar to a computer 2) information progresses through our cognitive system in a series of stages

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13
Q

What are the 5 themes of the textbook?

A

1) cognitive processes are active rather than passive
2) cognitive processes are efficient and accurate
3) cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information
4) cognitive processes are interrelated and not isolated
5) many cognitive processes rely on both bottom up and top down processes

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14
Q

What are bottom-up processes?

A

Cognitive processing which begins with an external stimulus registered on the sensory receptors

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15
Q

What is top-down processing?

A

Cognitive processes which begin with internal processes such as memory, expectations, etc

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16
Q

What is the connectionist approach? What’s the other names for it?

A

Cognitive processes can be understood in terms of networks that link together neuron-like processing units. Also called the parallel distributed processing (PDP) approach and the neural-network approach

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17
Q

Brain lesions

A

Refers to destruction of an area of the brain

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18
Q

Positron emission tomography (PET)

A

Oldest. Measure of blood flow in the brain by injection of a radioactive chemical before working on a cognitive task. Does not provide time based information.

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19
Q

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A

A magnetic field is applied to the head which produces changes in oxygen atoms which are measured during a cognitive task. Does not provide time based info.

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20
Q

Event-related potential (ERP)

A

Records fluctuations in the brains electrical activity using electrodes. Provides time based info but not about which neural substrates are involved.

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21
Q

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A

Records magnetic field fluctuations in a shielded room with electrodes produced by neural activity. Provides time based info and neural substrates info. Newest.

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22
Q

Perception

A

Uses previous knowledge to gather and interpret the stimuli registered by the senses

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23
Q

Object recognition

A

Identification of a complex arrangement of sensory stimuli that is perceived as separate from the background

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24
Q

Distal-stimulus

A

The actual object in the environment

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25
Q

Proximal-stimulus

A

The information registered on your sensory receptors

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26
Q

Sensory memory

A

The large capacity storage system that records information from each of the senses with reasonable accuracy

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27
Q

Primary visual cortex

A

Portion of the cerebral cortex concerned with basic processing of visual stimuli

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28
Q

Illusory contours

A

When we see edges even though they are not physically present in the stimulus

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29
Q

Template matching theory

A

Theory of object recognition that states your visual system compares a stimulus with a set of templates stored in memory and finds a match

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30
Q

Feature-analysis models

A

Theory of object recognition which states that visual stimulus is composed of a small number of distinctive features

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31
Q

Recognition-by-components

A

An object recognition theory that says a certain view of an object can be represented as an arrangement of simple 3D shapes called geons

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32
Q

Word superiority effect

A

We can identify a single letter more accurately and quickly when it appears in a meaningful word

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33
Q

Change blindness

A

When we fail to detect a change in an object or a scene due to top down processing

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34
Q

Inattentional blindness

A

When we fail to notice a new object appear

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35
Q

Why is face perception different from normal object recognition?

A

We recognize faces in terms of its gestalt

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36
Q

Prosopagnosia

A

Inability to recognize human faces

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37
Q

Inter-speaker variability

A

Different speakers of the same language produce the same sound differently

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38
Q

Coarticulation

A

When you are pronouncing a particular phoneme your mouth remains in the same shape as when you pronounced the last phoneme

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39
Q

Phonemic restoration

A

When people fill in a missing phoneme by using context as a clue

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40
Q

The McGurk effect

A

When individuals must integrate both visual and auditory information

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41
Q

Special mechanism approach

A

A theory of speech perception which says humans are born with a specialized device that allows us to decode speech stimuli

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42
Q

Phonetic module

A

A special purpose neural mechanism that processes all aspects of speech perception, not auditory

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43
Q

General mechanism approach

A

Theory of speech perception which says we can explain speech perception without a special phonetic module

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44
Q

Divided-attention task

A

When you try to pay attention to two or more simultaneous messages, speed and accuracy suffer

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45
Q

Selective-attention task

A

When you try to pay attention to certain information while ignoring other ongoing information

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46
Q

What are three kinds of selective-attention tasks?

A

Dichotic listening, stroop effect, visual search

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47
Q

What do we know from dichotic listening tasks?

A

People can only process one message at a time

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48
Q

What is the cocktail party effect?

A

When you notice your name dropped at a party even when you’re paying close attention to a different convo

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49
Q

What is the stroop effect?

A

People take a long time to name the color when it’s used to print an incongruent word, demonstrating selective attention because they are distracted by the word

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50
Q

Feature-present/feature-absent effect

A

People can typically located a feature that is present faster than a feature that is absent

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51
Q

Saccadic eye movements

A

Very fast movement of the eyes from one spot to the next, during reading to bring the center of the retina over the words

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52
Q

Fixation

A

Occurs during the period between two saccadic eye movements when your visual system pauses to get information for reading comprehension

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53
Q

Perceptual span

A

The number of letters and spaces that we perceive during a fixation

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54
Q

Parafoveal preview

A

Readers can access information about upcoming words even though that are fixated on words to the left

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55
Q

The orientating attention network is responsible for

A

shifting your attention around to various spatial locations like in visual search

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56
Q

People who have brain damage in the parietal region of the right hemisphere of the brain have trouble noticing visual stimulus on which side of their visual field?

A

Left

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57
Q

Executive attention network

A

Responsible for attention we use during conflict as it inhibits automatic responses to stimuli

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58
Q

Distributed attention

A

When you register all features of a field simultaneously

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59
Q

Focused attention

A

Identifying one object at a time

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60
Q

Illusory conjunction. Give example.

A

Inappropriate combination of features, such as combining an objects shape with a different objects color

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61
Q

Consciousness

A

The awareness people have about the outside world, their perceptions, images, thoughts, memories, and feelings. Focused attention that is not automatic

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62
Q

Are people conscious of their mental processes?

A

No, often they are conscious of the product of thoughts

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63
Q

Thought suppression

A

Produces ironic effects of mental control

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64
Q

What does blindsight reveal about consciousness?

A

People can perform a cognitive task quite accurately with no conscious awareness that their performance is accurate. Meaning some info from the retina travels outside the visual cortex

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65
Q

Provide the summary of the neuroscience research on attention

A

One kind of attention tasks activates the frontal lobe, and another activates the parietal lobe

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66
Q

Triesman’s integration theory (2 parts)

A

We sometimes look at a scene using distributed attention and sometimes use focused attention, meaning they form a continuum

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67
Q

Mind wandering occurs when

A

Your thoughts shift from the outside world to your inner thoughts

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68
Q

The bottleneck theory is inadequate for accounting for attention because

A

It underestimates the flexibility of our attention

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69
Q

Working memory

A

Brief, immediate memory for the limited amount of material that you are currently processing

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70
Q

What did George Miller and Peterson Peterson discover about memory?

A

Material held in memory for less than one minute is frequently forgotten

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71
Q

Serial-position effect

A

Refers to the U-shaped relationship between a words position in a list and its probability of accurate recall

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72
Q

Proactive interference

A

People have trouble learning new material because previously learned material keeps interfering

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73
Q

How can PI be released?

A

If the semantic category is shifted

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74
Q

What was Atkinsons & Shiffrins model of memory?

A

The classic information processing model, with sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory

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75
Q

What was Baddeley’s model of memory?

A

Working memory with the central executive, phonological loop, visuaspatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, and long term memory

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76
Q

Phonological loop

A

Processes language and sounds for short periods of time using a limited specialized storage system

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77
Q

Acoustic confusions

A

When people confuse similar sounding stimuli

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78
Q

Name three instances where the phonological loop is used

A

Self-talk
Learning new words
Problem solving

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79
Q

What does the visuospatial sketchpad do?

A

Processes both visual and spatial information using a limited specialized storage system

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80
Q

What are three instances where the visuospatial sketchpad is used?

A

Finding your way to a location
Tracking a moving object
Visualizing a scene

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81
Q

What part of the brain is active in the phonological loop?

A

Part of the left frontal and temporal lobe

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82
Q

What part of the brain is active in the visuospatial sketchpad?

A

Right hemisphere of the cortex

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83
Q

What does the central executive do?

A

Integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, and long term memory.

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84
Q

What part of the brain is involved in the central executive?

A

Frontal region of the cortex

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85
Q

What is the episodic buffer?

A

Within Baddleys working memory model, it serves as a temporary storehouse that holds and combines information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long term memory.

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86
Q

What is long-term memory?

A

A high capacity storage system that contains memories of experiences and information accumulated over the lifetime

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87
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

Memories for events that happened to you personally

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88
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

A top down process from long term memory involving your organized knowledge about the world

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89
Q

What is procedural memory?

A

Your knowledge about how to do something

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90
Q

What does Craik and Lockhart’s levels-of-processing approach argue?

A

That deep meaningful processing of information leads to more accurate recall than shallow sensory processing

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91
Q

Deep levels of processing encourage recall because of which two factors? Describe.

A

Distinctiveness: meaning the stimulus is different than other memory traces

Elaboration: means rich processing in terms of meaning and interconnected concepts

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92
Q

What is the self-reference effect?

A

You remember more information when you relate the information to yourself as it encourages deep processing

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93
Q

What is the encoding-specificity principle?

A

The idea that recall is better if the context during retrieval is similar to the context during encoding

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94
Q

What did Marian and Fausey’s study demonstrate?

A

The encoding-specificity principle by presenting a story in one language and asking questions about it in a different language

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95
Q

The encoding-specificity effect is likely to occur in what 3 kinds of events?

A

1) recall
2) real-life events
3) events from a long time ago

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96
Q

What happens in an explicit memory task?

A

A researcher asks you to remember some information

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97
Q

What happens in an implicit memory task?

A

The researcher gives some information than later has you do some cognitive task

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98
Q

What does research on implicit and explicit memory reveal about recall?

A

Adults often can’t remember stimuli in an explicit memory task, but may remember stimuli in an implicit memory task

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99
Q

When does a dissociation occur?

A

When a variable has large effects on test A, but little or no effects on test B

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100
Q

What is retrograde amnesia?

A

A loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain damage

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101
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

The loss of ability to form memories for events that have occurred after brain damage

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102
Q

Autobiographical memory

A

Memory for events and issues related to yourself

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103
Q

Schema

A

Consists of your general knowledge or expectation of someone or something based on your past experiences with them

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104
Q

What is source monitoring?

A

The process of trying to identify the origin of a particular memory

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105
Q

Flashbulb memory

A

Refers to your memory for the circumstances in which you first learned about a very surprising and emotionally arousing event

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106
Q

What is the consistency bias?

A

When we exaggerate the consistency between our past feelings and beliefs and our current viewpoint

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107
Q

Reality monitoring

A

When you try to identify whether an event actually occurred or if you just imagined it

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108
Q

What did research on flashbulb memory discover?

A

That people’s memory for an expected event is just as accurate as their memory for a surprising event

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109
Q

What occurs in the post-event misinformation effect?

A

When people view an event and are given misleading information which they later recall rather than the event they saw

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110
Q

How confident are eye witnesses about their correct and incorrect memories?

A

Almost equally confident

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111
Q

What are four factors that effect accurate eye witness testimony?

A

1) stress
2) a long delay
3) plausible misinformation
4) social pressure

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112
Q

Own-ethnicity bias

A

You are more accurate at identifying members of your own ethnic group than others

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113
Q

What is the Pollyanna Principle?

A

Pleasant items are more efficiently and accurately processed and recalled than less pleasant items

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114
Q

Recovered-memory perspective

A

Some individuals who experienced sexual abuse during childhood forget it for many years

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115
Q

False-memory perspective

A

Most recovered memories of sexual abuse in childhood are actually incorrect memories

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116
Q

Total-Time hypothesis

A

The amount of information you learn depends on the total time you’ve devoted to learning

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117
Q

Distributed-practice effect

A

You will remember more material if you spread your learning over time

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118
Q

Testing effect

A

Testing improves recall

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119
Q

Mnemonics

A

Mental strategies to improve your memory

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120
Q

What four mnemonic techniques use organizational memory?

A

Chunking
Hierarchy
First-letter technique
Narrative technique

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121
Q

What is the difference between prospective memory and retrospective memory?

A

Prospective memory focuses on future plans and actions, retrospective memory is about remembering information and ideas

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122
Q

Why does prospective memory involve divided attention?

A

Since you must focus on your ongoing activity and the task you to do in the future

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123
Q

What kind of memory is related to absent mindedness?

A

Prospective memory

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124
Q

Metacognition

A

Your knowledge and control of your cognitive processes

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125
Q

Metamemory

A

A type of metacognition that refers to peoples knowledge, monitoring, and control of their memory

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126
Q

What 2 factors affect metamemory accuracy for test results?

A

1) if you predict your accuracy on individual test items
2) when you predict your accuracy after a delay

127
Q

Tip-of-the-tongue

A

The experience of knowing the target word your searching for but not being able to recall it

128
Q

What did Brown and McNeil find about the tip-of-the-tongue experience?

A

Young adults have about 1 TOTT experience a week and bilingual people experience it more than monolinguals

129
Q

Metacomprehension

A

Your thoughts about language comprehension

130
Q

What was non traditional about George Millers article on the magical number seven?

A

It emphasized active mental processes rather than just focusing on the stimulus and response

131
Q

What is the effect of the narrative technique on recall?

A

It makes recall six times better

132
Q

What is the retrieval-practice effect?

A

The attempt to recall important concepts from memory which enhances learning and test performance

133
Q

Mental imagery

A

Refers to the mental representation of stimuli that is not physically present in the environment

134
Q

What is the imagery debate?

A

Asks whether mental images resemble perceptions or language

135
Q

Analog code

A

When mental images closely resemble the physical object

136
Q

Propositional code

A

A mental image resembles an abstract language like representation

137
Q

Which notion does behavioral and cognitive neuroscientific data support in the imagery debate?

A

The analog code

138
Q

When do people use an analog code vs a propositional code?

A

People use analog when thinking of simple figures and propositional when thinking of complex figures

139
Q

What did the study by Kosslyn reveal?

A

There is a linear relationship between the distance to be scanned on a mental map and the time required to do so

140
Q

What did Paivio’s research show?

A

That people are faster at making decisions about angles on a clock if the two angles are very different in size

141
Q

Do mental images interfere with physical images?

A

Yes

142
Q

Demand characteristics

A

The cues that might convey the experimenters hypothesis to the participant

143
Q

Meta-analysis

A

A statistical method for combining numerous studies on a single topic

144
Q

What cognitive skill do males score higher in?

A

Mental rotation/special ability

145
Q

Pitch

A

A characteristic of sound that can be arranged on a scale from low to high

146
Q

Timbre

A

Describes the sound quality of a tone

147
Q

Cognitive map

A

A mental representation of geographic information including the environment that surrounds us

148
Q

Spatial cognition refers to what 3 cognitive activities?

A

1) thoughts about cognitive maps
2) how we remember the world around us
3) how we keep track of objects in a spatial array

149
Q

Heuristic

A

A general problem solving strategy that usually produces a correct solution but not always

150
Q

Border bias

A

People estimate that the distance between two locations is larger if they are on different sides of a geographic border

151
Q

Landmark effect

A

Tendency to provide shorter estimates when traveling to a landmark

152
Q

What is something that affects the estimated distance between two cities on a map?

A

The number of intervening cities

153
Q

90-degree-angle heuristic

A

When people represent angles in a mental map as being closer to 90 degrees than they really are

154
Q

Rotation heuristic

A

A figure that is slightly tilted will be remembered as being either more vertical or more horizontal than it really is

155
Q

Alignment heuristic

A

A series of separate geographic structures will be remembered as more aligned than they really are

156
Q

Franklin and Tversky proposed what model? Explain it

A

Spatial framework model. The above-below spatial dimension is important for thinking, the front-back dimension is less important, and the left-right dimension is the least important

157
Q

What is the situated cognition approach? 3 things

A

We make use of helpful information in the immediate environment or situation so that our knowledge depends on the context that surrounds us. Consistent with ecological validity. Our ability to solve a problem is tied to specific physical and social context which we learned to solve the problem.

158
Q

Category

A

A set of objects that belong together

159
Q

Concept

A

Your mental representations of a category

160
Q

What kind of memory are concepts and categories related to?

A

Semantic memory

161
Q

Prototype

A

The ideal representative or example of a category

162
Q

What occurs in the prototype approach?

A

You decide whether a particular item belongs to a category by comparing it with a prototype

163
Q

Prototypicality

A

The degree to which something is representative of its category

164
Q

How is a graded structure formed?

A

By the most prototypical members to the least prototypical members

165
Q

Typicality effect

A

When people judge prototypes as belonging to a category faster than items that are non-prototypical

166
Q

Semantic priming effect

A

People respond faster to an item if it’s preceded by an item with similar meaning

167
Q

Family resemblance

A

Means that no single attribute is shared by all examples of a concept, but each example has at least one attribute in common with some other example of the concept

168
Q

What are the 3 different levels of categorization according to Rosch’s theory?

A

Superordinate, basic, and subordinate

169
Q

Which level of categorization is special and why?

A

Basic-level categories are more likely to produce the semantic priming effect

170
Q

Exemplar approach

A

That we first learn information about some specific examples of a concept and then classify each new stimulus by deciding how closely it resembles all the specific examples

171
Q

What did Heit and Barsalou find?

A

Information about exemplar frequency and exemplar typicality accurately predicts typical categories for superordinate categories

172
Q

When should you use the examples approach vs the prototype approach?

A

Use examples approach when a category has few members, use the prototype approach when a category has numerous members

173
Q

Declarative knowledge

A

Knowledge about facts and things

174
Q

ACT-R. What is?

A

Andersons declarative model. Adaptive control of thought rational. A propositional network model of semantic memory.

175
Q

Spontaneous generalization

A

Using individual cases to draw inferences about general information

176
Q

Default assignment

A

Drawing a conclusion about a specific member of a category

177
Q

Graceful degradation

A

Brains ability to provide partial memory

178
Q

Script

A

A simple well-structured sequence of events

179
Q

Boundary extension

A

The tendency to remember seeing a greater portion of a scene than was actually shown

180
Q

How are boundary extensions related to schemas?

A

We tend to remember idealized schema consistent images rather than partial figures

181
Q

Abstraction

A

A memory process that stores the meaning of a message rather than the exact words

182
Q

Verbatim memory

A

Word-for-word recall

183
Q

Constructive model of memory

A

People integrate information from individual sentences in order to construct larger ideas

184
Q

Pragmatic view of memory

A

People pay attention to the part of a message that is most relevant to their current goals, specific wording or verbatim memory is used in processing an insult

185
Q

Memory integration

A

Our background knowledge encourages us to take in new information in a schema consistent fashion

186
Q

What did Bartlett discover about memory integration?

A

Our top-down processes often shape our memory for complex material

187
Q

What is John Andersons theory of semantic memory?

A

ACT-R. A declarative model that says every concept in a proposition can be represented by a network of connections

188
Q

Phoneme

A

A basic unit of spoken language

189
Q

Morpheme

A

Basic unit of meaning

190
Q

Grammar

A

Involves both morphology and syntax to govern the entire system of rules for language

191
Q

Semantics

A

Involves the meanings of words and sentences

192
Q

Pragmatics

A

Our knowledge of the social rules that underlie language use that take in the listeners perspective

193
Q

What did Chomsky argue?

A

That knowledge of grammar can exist independently of semantic knowledge

194
Q

Surface structure

A

The words that are actually spoken or written

195
Q

Deep structure

A

The underlying abstract meaning of a sentence

196
Q

What are transformational rules used for?

A

To convert deep structure into a surface structure that can be spoken or written

197
Q

What does the cognitive-functional approach argue about language?

A

That the function of human language in everyday life is to communicate meaning to other people, and that our cognitive processes are intertwined with our language processes

198
Q

Good-enough approach

A

Argues we frequently only process part of a sentence

199
Q

Lexical ambiguity

A

Refers to the fact that a single words can have multiple meanings

200
Q

Syntactic ambiguity

A

When a sentence structure is ambiguous, especially when it contains no punctuation

201
Q

Neurolinguistics

A

The discipline that studies the underlying neurological structures and systems that support language

202
Q

Aphasia

A

When a person has difficulty communicating due to brain damage

203
Q

Broca’s aphasia. 3 things Broca’s area is involved in.

A

Expressive language deficit. Broca’s area also involved in music, gestures, and some imagery

204
Q

Wernickes area

A

Difficulties understanding language

205
Q

Lateralization

A

Each hemisphere of the brain has different functions

206
Q

Left vs right hemisphere in language processing

A

Left performs most of the language processing. Right pays attention to emotional tone of a message and humor

207
Q

What is the mirror system and when is it activated? When is it useful?

A

A network involving the brains motor cortex, active when watching someone perform an action and when performing the action yourself. Useful for when talking in a crowded room

208
Q

Reading is spread out across ___ and speech is spread out across ____

A

Space. Time.

209
Q

Direct-access route

A

When you recognize a word directly through vision without sounding it out

210
Q

Indirect-access route

A

Reading a word by sounding it out

211
Q

Dual-route approach

A

Readers who use both direct and indirect access routes

212
Q

Whole-word approach

A

Connecting the written words with the meaning that it represents

213
Q

Phonics approach

A

Recognizing words by trying to pronounce the individual letters in the word

214
Q

Discourse

A

Interrelated units of language that are larger than a single sentence

215
Q

Inferences

A

Conclusions that go beyond an isolated phrase or sentence

216
Q

Constructionist view of inferences

A

Readers usually draw inferences about the causes and relationships between events

217
Q

What are three reasons people draw inferences more?

A

If they have a large working memory capacity
If they have good metacomprehension skills
If they have expertise about the topic

218
Q

What are the three stages of sentence production?

A

Message planning
Grammatical encoding
Phonological encoding

219
Q

What are two way gestures are helpful?

A

They can help you remember words
They facilitate learning

220
Q

Embodied cognition

A

People use their bodies to express their knowledge

221
Q

Frame

A

Describes our mental structures that simplify reality

222
Q

What is one weakness for bilingualism?

A

They may process language more slowly

223
Q

Age of acquisition

A

The age at which you learned a second language

224
Q

What are the 3 phases of writing?

A

Planning
Sentence génération
Revising

225
Q

What is the current view on Broca’s area?

A

A debate whether the area is responsible for language or language related processes

226
Q

What are the 3 features of a problem?

A

The initial state, the goal state, and the obstacles

227
Q

Define understanding as it relates to problem solving

A

A well organized mental representation of the problem based on provided information and previous experience

228
Q

Issue with using symbols for problem solving

A

Mistakes in translating words into symbols usually due to oversimplification

229
Q

Issue with using matrices for problem solving

A

If information changes over time

230
Q

Algorithm

A

A problem solving method that will always produce a correct solution to the problem

231
Q

What are the two components of the means-end heuristic?

A

1) Divide the problem into subproblems
2) Reduce the difference between the initial state and goal state for each subproblem

232
Q

GPS

A

General problem solver computer program that uses means-ends analysis to emulate human problem solving

233
Q

Hill-climbing heuristic

A

Consistently choosing the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward your goal

234
Q

Mental set

A

When you keep trying to use the same solution for a problem

235
Q

Functional fixedness

A

We tend to assign fixed functions to an object

236
Q

How are functional fixedness and mental set related?

A

They both represent overactive top-down processing

237
Q

What brain process allows for solving insight problems quickly?

A

Large working memory capacity

238
Q

Define creativity in problem solving

A

Novel and useful solutions

239
Q

A conditional reasoning task describes

A

The relationship between different conditions

240
Q

A syllogism consists of

A

Two statements that we assume to be true plus a conclusion, using quantities

241
Q

Propositional calculus

A

A system for categorizing the four kinds of reasoning used in analyzing propositions or statements

242
Q

Antecedent

A

First proposition or statement

243
Q

Conseuqent

A

Refers to the second proposition or statement

244
Q

Affirming the antecedent

A

Leads to a valid conclusion

245
Q

Affirming the consequent

A

Leads to an invalid conclusion

246
Q

Denying the antecedent

A

Leads to an invalid conclusion

247
Q

Denying the consequent

A

Leads to a valid conclusion

248
Q

The belief-bias effect occurs in reasoning when

A

People make judgments based on prior beliefs and general knowledge rather than the rules of logic

249
Q

Confirmation bias

A

People would rather confirm a hypothesis than try to disprove it

250
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

When we judge that a sample is likely if it is similar to the population from which it was selected

251
Q

According to the representativeness heuristic we believe that

A

Random-looking outcomes are more likely than orderly outcomes

252
Q

Why is sample size important?

A

A large sample is statistically more likely to reflect the true proportions of a population

253
Q

How is the small sample fallacy related to the representativeness heuristic?

A

Representativeness is such a compelling heuristic that we often fail to pay attention to sample size

254
Q

Base rate

A

How often an item occurs in a population

255
Q

Conjunction rule

A

The probability of the conjunction of two events cannot be larger than the probability of either of its constituent events

256
Q

Availability heuristic

A

When you estimate the frequency or probability of something in terms of how easy it is to come up with relevant examples

257
Q

The availability heuristic is accurate so long as

A

Availability is correlated with true objective frequency

258
Q

What are two potential distortions of availability?

A

Recency and familiarity

259
Q

Illusory correlation

A

When people believe that two variables are statistically related despite having no evidence for the relationship. Relying too strongly on one cell of a matrix

260
Q

Anchoring and adjustment heuristic

A

We start with an approximation which serves as an anchor and then make adjustments based on additional information

261
Q

What is the problem with the anchoring and adjustment heuristic?

A

People typically rely too heavily on the anchor so that their adjustments are too small

262
Q

Confidence interval

A

The range which we expect a number to fall a certain percentage of the time

263
Q

What does the framing effect demonstrate? 2 points

A

The outcome of your decision can be influenced by the background context of the question, and the way the question is framed

264
Q

Tversky and Kahneman used the term prospect theory to refer to

A

The tendency for people to avoid risks when dealing with gains, and to seek risk when dealing with loss

265
Q

Give two examples of over confidence in decision making

A

Illusory correlation
Anchoring and adjustment heuristic

266
Q

Crystal-ball technique

A

Asks decision makers to imagine that a completely accurate crystal ball has said that their hypothesis is incorrect so that alternative explanations are provided

267
Q

Hindsight bias

A

Occurs when an event has happened and we say the event was inevitable

268
Q

Maximizers

A

People who have a maximizing decision making style where they examine as many options as possible

269
Q

What encourages the use of analogies in problem solving?

A

When someone has tried several problem isomorphes

270
Q

Isolated-feature/combined-feature effect

A

People can typically locate an isolated feature faster than a combined feature

271
Q

Long term memory involves what 3 kinds of memory?

A

Semantic memory
Episodic memory
Procedural memory

272
Q

What are the two current approaches to semantic memory?

A

Prototype approach
Exemplar approach

273
Q

Syntax

A

A subdivision of grammar which governs the way words are arranged to form sentences

274
Q

What is the weakness of classical information-processing models?

A

They cannot account for the kinds of cognitive tasks that humans do very quickly without conscious thought

275
Q

Cognitive neuroscience

A

Combines the research techniques of cognitive psychology with various methods for assessing the structure and function of the brain

276
Q

What is measured in the self-paced reading task?

A

The amount of time that the participant looks at each word, reaction times

277
Q

What do on-line language processing measures do?

A

Gauge the amount of difficulty as the linguistic signal unfolds unit-by-unit over time

278
Q

What did the language-localizer task reveal?

A

Regions of the frontal lobe that responds only to language

279
Q

Iconic gestures

A

Gestures that represent the concept the speaker is talking about

280
Q

Deictic gestures

A

Involve pointing to some object or location while speaking using words like “this” or “that”

281
Q

Beat gestures

A

Gestures that occur in a rhythm that matches the speech rate and prosodic content

282
Q

Prosody, what is it and when is it useful?

A

The melody of speech, which can clarify an ambiguous message

283
Q

Pre writing

A

Beginning a formal writing project by generating a list of ideas

284
Q

Implicit Association Test demonstrated what principle?

A

People can mentally pair related words together more easily than unrelated words

285
Q

What part of language is influenced by age of acquisition?

A

Phonology

286
Q

Phonology refers to

A

The sounds of a persons speech

287
Q

Is grammar ability always related to age of acquisition?

A

Not once you control for years of education

288
Q

What is a strong determinant of the amount of processing difficulty an individual will experience during language processing?

A

Syntactic complexity

289
Q

What did Michael Tanenhaus find?

A

Contextual information reduces syntactic ambiguity

290
Q

Why is there difficulty in specifying the neural underpinnings of language?

A

Because of the distributed nature of language in the brain

291
Q

How are mirror neurons relevant to language?

A

Communication goes beyond auditory stimuli or the words you read, since mirror neurons play a role in language comprehension

292
Q

6 differences between reading and speech

A

1) Reading is spread across space, speech across time
2) readers control rate of input
3) readers can rescan
4) readers have error free input
5) readers have boundaries between words
6) readers can learn new words more quickly but languages slower

293
Q

Why do readers create causal inferences?

A

To integrate discourse and construct a well-organized story

294
Q

Slips-of-the-tongue

A

Errors in which sounds or entire words are rearranged between two or more words

295
Q

Sound errors

A

Occur when sounds in nearby words are exchanged

296
Q

Morpheme errors

A

When morphemes are exchanged in nearby words

297
Q

Word errors

A

When words are exchanged

298
Q

Narrative

A

A category of discourse where someone describes a series of actual or fictional events

299
Q

Common ground

A

When conversationalists share the similar background knowledge, schemas, and perspectives necessary for mutual understanding

300
Q

What parts of working memory are used and not used during writing?

A

The phonological loop is required, visual aspect are used when trying to define a concrete word, spatial aspect is not used

301
Q

Psycholinguistics

A

An interdisciplinary field that examines how people use language to communicate ideas

302
Q

Matrix

A

A grid consisting of rows and columns that shows all possible combinations of items

303
Q

What are five ways experts differ from novices in problem solving?

A

Experts differ in their knowledge base and schemas
Experts differ in terms of memory
Experts differ in using the means-ends heuristic effectively
Experts are faster
Experts have better meta cognitive skills

304
Q

Divergent production

A

Creativity measured as the number of different responses to a single test item

305
Q

Convergent production

A

A measure of creativity based on the quality of a single response

306
Q

What are the three conclusions about creativity?

A

Creativity uses convergent and divergent thinking
Creativity is associated with the left and right hemisphere
Creativity occurs when using focused and defocused attention

307
Q

Dual-processing theory

A

Type 1 processing that is fast and automatic
Type 2 processing that is slow and controlled

308
Q

What did the Wason selection task show about people?

A

When given a choice they would rather know what something is rather than what it is not

309
Q

How does deductive reasoning and decision making differ?

A

Decision making is more ambiguous

310
Q

What is the difference between the representativeness heuristic and the availability heuristic?

A

The representativeness heuristic is when we take a specific example and judge if it is similar to the general category. The availability heuristic we take a general category and recall specific examples

311
Q

Recognition heuristic

A

When you conclude that the recognized category has higher frequency

312
Q

Social cognition approach

A

The view that stereotypes and other components of social psychology can be traced to normal cognitive processes

313
Q

Ecological rationality

A

Describes how people create a variety of heuristics to make decisions

Cognitive Psychology (1 decks)

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