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Research Methods 344 > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

Explain why it’s beneficial to be a critical consumer of information

A

for your future career/evidence-based approach

crucial especially in a world of AI

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2
Q

Explain how scientists are empiricists

A

scientists are empiricists because empiricism is the use of verifiable evidence as the basis for conclusions; collecting data systematically and using to develop/ challenge a theory

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3
Q

Explain what theory-data cycle is

A

theory –> research questions –> research design –> hypothesis –> data

then have to determine if you need to revise due to nonsupporting data or if data does back up theory = support

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4
Q

Explain the features of good scientific theories

A

supported by data

falsifiable
- when tested, can fail to support the theory

have parsimony
- simple > complicated study

don’t prove anything
- theories don’t prove anything, implies no room for error which is not possible

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5
Q

Explain the differences between basic vs. translational vs. applied research

A

basic - enhance general body knowledge

transitional - real world problem solved in lab

applied - real-world setting

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6
Q

Describe the differences between empirical journals and popular journalism

A

empirical - scientific

popular - broad claims based on research

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7
Q

Explain two problems with basing beliefs on our own experience

A

could be biased information

don’t have a comparison group

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8
Q

Explain what it means for research to be probabilistic

A

probabilistic - finding are not expected to explain all the cases all the time, there are exceptions

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9
Q

Describe at least five ways intuition is biased

A

being swayed by a good story

availability heuristic
- cognitive bias due to recent exposure to topic

present/present bias
- forget to seek information that isn’t there

confirmation bias
- look for information accepting our beliefs, denying info that contradicts beliefs

bias blind spot
- think biases don’t apply to you, failing to notice own cognitive bias

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10
Q

Explain whether we should be cautious about accepting the conclusions of authority figures (especially conclusions that are not based on research)

A

could be disinformation

ask if you can cross-check this story and what the context is

it may be politically biased

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11
Q

Explain the advantages of research over intuition and experience

A

not influenced by your beliefs

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12
Q

Identify variables and distinguish a variable from its levels (or values).

A

variable - thing being studied that varies from person to person

need two levels to each variable

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13
Q

Discriminate between measured and manipulated variables

A

measured - observed and recorded

manipulated - controlled

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14
Q

Describe a variable both as a conceptual variable and as an operational definition

A

conceptual - not measurable

operational - specific definition/way to measure something

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15
Q

Indicate how many variables frequency, association, and causal claims typically involve

A

frequency - one measured variable

association - at least two measured variables

causal - at least two measured variables

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16
Q

Describe and identify positive, negative, and zero associations

A

positive - goes low to high

negative - high to low

zero - no definite slope present

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17
Q

Identify verbs that signal causal claims versus association claims

A

association:
- is linked to
- is associated with
- is correlated with
- prefers

causal:
- affects
- prevents
- fights
- changes

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18
Q

Explain the three criteria used to evaluate a causal claim: covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity

A

covariance - 2 variables are related

temporal precedence - study conducted showing cause came before effect

internal validity - clarifies that variable B is the only thing to cause/change variable A

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19
Q

Understand that very few studies can achieve all four kinds of _______ at once, so researchers must prioritize some over others depending on what kind of claim the researcher is making

A

validity

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20
Q

Describe the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and explain how it violates the three ethical principles of the Belmont Report

A

tuskegee - black individuals with syphilis, doctors didn’t tell them what was wrong and left some people without treatment to see what would happen

violated:
respect for person: no informed consent
beneficence: didn’t protect people from harm
justice: targeted black people in specific

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21
Q

Explain informed consent and the protection of vulnerable groups (applying the principle of respect for persons)

A

informed consent process:
1. voluntariness
- no coercion
- no undue influence/bias from experimenter
2. information
3. comprehension
- study is easily understandable to participant

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22
Q

Explain how researchers might evaluate the risks and benefits of a study (applying the principle of beneficence)

A

confidentiality
privacy
anonymity
debriefing
emphasizing voluntary nature of participation

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23
Q

Explain how researchers would apply the principle of justice in selecting research participants

A

make sure you aren’t targeting participants because they are easily accessible

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24
Q

Define three forms of research misconduct

A

data fabrication
- made up data to fit hypothesis

data falsification
- removing data that can falsify study

plagiarism

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25
Q

Describe what institutional review boards do

A

review studies to make sure they are ethical/protects participants

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26
Q

Describe deception and explain when deception is considered permissible in a study

A

deception is when you are lying to the participants (commission) or withholding information (omission)

only ok to use if there is a strong reason and participants are debriefed after the study

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27
Q

Describe the debriefing process and the goals of debriefing.

A

to let the participant know what the purpose of the experiment was, how it is going to further the literature and describe their role in it

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28
Q

Describe the role of an institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC) and the Animal Welfare Act in protecting the welfare of animals in research

A

AWA - federal law that regulates treatment in teaching, research, etc., anytime an animal is included

IACUC - institutional level, need approval from this committee before study is published involving animals

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29
Q

Explain the animal care guidelines and the four R’s

A

replacement
- find alternative if possible instead of animals

refinement
- altering research procedures to reduce stress

reduction
- fewest number of animals possible

rehabilitation
- caring for animal after experiment ends

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30
Q

Recognize the difference between a conceptual variable and its operationalization

A

conceptual - construct or theoretical

operational - how it’s measured or manipulated

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31
Q

List three ways psychologists typically operationalize variables

A

self-report, observational, and physiological

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32
Q

Classify/identify measurement scales as categorical or quantitative; further classify quantitative variables as ratio, interval, and ordinal

A

categorical - things/cannot be represented with numbers
quantitative - nominal

ratio - true 0, = distance between numbers
interval - no true 0, = distance between numbers
ordinal - ranking/order, not = distance between numbers

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33
Q

Describe the difference between the validity and the reliability of a measure

A

reliability - measure

validity - accuracy

a test can be reliable but not valid, but a valid test has to be reliable

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34
Q

Identify three types of reliability (test-retest, interrater, and internal), and explain when each type is relevant

A

test-retest: whether the numbers stay the same or change overtime

interrater: degree to which observers agree in measurement of behavior

internal: each item in test is measuring same underlying construct, only apply to a scale with multiple items

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35
Q

Review scatterplots, focusing on how scatterplots show the direction and strength of a relationship

A

same as correlation

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36
Q

Apply the correlation coefficient, r, as a way to describe the direction and strength of a relationship

A

strong = high or low

positive = positive slope

negative = negative slope

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37
Q

Explain what face, content, criterion, convergent, and discriminant validities are

A

face - it looks like what you want to measure

content - the measure contains all the parts that your theory says it should contain

criterion - predictive validity

convergent - scores on the measure are related to other measures that are theoretically similar

divergent - scores on the measure are related to other measures that are theoretically different

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38
Q

Describe how scatterplots, r, and known groups can be used to evaluate validity

A

known groups - giving measure to group known to have condition/traits/outcome to have a reliable outcome

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39
Q

Describe the different ways questions can be worded: open-ended, forced-choice, and using rating scales

A

open - lots of information but hard to analyze/compare

forced - providing options that participants have to chose from, limited information

likert - anchored by terms like not at all and totally

semantic differential format - scale anchored by adjectives

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40
Q

Explain how to increase the construct validity of questions by wording them carefully and by avoiding …

A

leading, double barreled, and negatively worded questions hurt construct validity

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41
Q

Explain how question order can change the meaning/validity of a question

A

can give away the answer the researcher is looking for

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42
Q

Explain ways to increase the construct validity of questions by preventing respondent shortcuts/response sets (such as …), biases (such as …), or simple inability to report

A

shortcuts: acquiescence (yea-saying) and fence-sitting (choosing middle/neutral option)

biases: socially desirable responding/faking good, faking bad

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43
Q

Explain the strengths of respondent’s reports/informants’ reports

A

self reports strengths:
- people are their own best expert
- access to thoughts, feelings, and intentions
- definitional truth: whatever they say goes
- cost effective

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44
Q

Explain the weaknesses of respondent’s reports/informants’ reports

A

self reporting more than they know
self reporting memories of events
carelessness
rating products
bias

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45
Q

Explain ways to improve the construct validity of observations by reducing …

A

observer bias, observer effects, and target reactivity

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46
Q

solutions for reactivity

A

blend in

wait it out

measure the behavior’s result

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47
Q

Explain the difference between population of interest and samples

A

population of interest - whole target population

sample - small portion of target population

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48
Q

Define sampling problems that lead to biased samples

A

convenience sampling
- researchers sample easiest ppl to recruit

self selection
- sampling only those who volunteer to participate

49
Q

Explain why a random sample is more likely to be a representative sample and why representative samples have external validity to a particular population

A

give everyone in the population of interest a chance to be sampled, easier to generalize = higher external validity

50
Q

Explain techniques for random sampling: simple random sampling, cluster sampling, multi-stage sampling, stratified random sampling, oversampling, and systematic sampling

A

simple random
- random picking of all people in population of interest

cluster
- groups of people but are arbitrary

multi-stage
- random selecting from clusters, not using everyone in each cluster like cluster sampling

stratified
- groups are created specifically to represent population of interest

oversampling
- like stratified but overrepresent groups on purpose

systematic
- random select starting point and interval you select people in

51
Q

Describe techniques of nonrandom sampling: convenience sampling, purposive sampling, snowball sampling, and quota sampling

A

convenience
- internal validity > external

purposive
- use specific type of person/study a specific group, biased recruiting

snowball
- asking participants to recommend other people they know that the study is observing

quota
- set target number of recruitment until quota is met

52
Q

Explain why it is more important, when assessing external validity, to ask how a sample was collected rather than how large it is

A

more generalizable if it was a random sample than if it had a ton of people

53
Q

Estimate results from a correlational study with two quantitative variables by looking at a scatterplot.

A

yup

54
Q

Understand how the correlation coefficient, r, represents the _______ and ________ of a relationship between two quantitative variables, and how to apply Cohen’s guidelines for evaluating strength of association

A

strength; direction

small: more than 0.10
moderate: more than 0.30
large: more than 0.50

55
Q

Interpret data from a correlations table

A

don’t compare beta’s from different tables!

56
Q

Analyze a correlational study, in which at least one variable is categorical by looking at a bar graph and computing the difference between the two means

A

yup

57
Q

Interrogate the construct validity of an association claim, asking whether the measurement of each variable was _____ and _____

A

reliable; valid

58
Q

Interrogate the statistical validity of an association claim, asking about features of the data that might distort the meaning of the correlation coefficient, such as outliers in the scatterplot, effect size, and the possibility of restricted range as well as whether the correlation is statistically significant. When the correlation coefficient is zero, inspect the scatterplot to see if the relationship is curvilinear

A

got it

59
Q

Interrogate the external validity of an association claim by asking __ _____ the association can generalize

A

to whom

60
Q

Distinguish an association claim, which requires that … , from a causal claim, which requires that the study …

A

a study meets only one of the three rules for causation (covariance);

also establish temporal precedence and internal validity

61
Q

Explain how longitudinal designs are conducted

A

measured over time with same participants

62
Q

Identify three types of correlations in a longitudinal correlational design: cross-sectional correlations, autocorrelations, and cross-lag correlations

A

cross-sectional
- relationship between 2 variables at one point in time

auto
- looking at correlation of each variable of itself across each time point

cross-lag
- correlation between one variable and another time point
- only one close to establishing temporal precedence

63
Q

Interpret different possible outcomes in cross-lag correlations, and make a causal inference suggested by each pattern

A

if both are significant they are neutrally reinforcing, don’t know which is causing which

64
Q

Explain how multiple-regression designs are conducted

A

add multiple variables to the study to control for confounds and compare beta’s/strength of correlation

65
Q

Identify and define dependent (criterion) variables and independent (predictor) variables in the
context of multiple-regression data

A

criterion
- main IV that you are comparing other IV’s too

predictor
- third variables that you are controlling for

66
Q

Identify and interpret data from a multiple-regression table and explain, in a sentence, what each coefficient means

A

beta is used to compare strength while the P value is used to show significance

67
Q

Explain why experiments are superior to multiple-regression designs for controlling for third variables

A

allows the experimenter to randomly assign people to a group which increases internal validity

68
Q

Explain the value of pattern and parsimony in research

A

easier to replicate/verify in future studies as the simpler and easier the pattern is, the better!

69
Q

Articulate the difference between mediators, third variables, and moderating variables

A

mediators
- ask “why”, explaining process in which something happens

third variables
- external to the study, problematic

moderators
- ask “for whom” or “when”

70
Q

Distinguish measured from manipulated variables in a study

A

measured
- observed and recorded
- DV

manipulated
- researcher has an influence/impact on results of participants IV

71
Q

Identify an experiment’s independent, dependent, and control variables

A

IV
- manipulated

DV
- measured, outcome variable

control
- any variable that an experiment holds constant

72
Q

Use the three causal criteria to analyze an experiment’s ability to support a causal claim

A

covariance
temporal precedence
internal validity

73
Q

Explain why control variables can help an experimenter eliminate design confounds

A

compare the IV to a group that wasn’t exposed to stimuli and help determine if they are influencing the IV instead of the stimuli

74
Q

Explain the difference between systematic and unsystematic variabilities

A

systematic
- another variable is changing with the IV
- problematic

unsystematic
- inconsistent/random change
- not a confound but make it hard to tell difference conditions

75
Q

Describe random assignment and explain its role in establishing internal validity

A

help groups not become unfair/selection effects

76
Q

Describe matching, explain its role in establishing internal validity, and explain situations in which matching may be preferred to random assignment

A

matching groups based on certain characteristics, helps avoid selection effects

77
Q

Describe how the procedures for independent-groups and within-groups experiments are different

A

independent - each group is exposed to one IV level

within - each group is exposed to all levels of IV

78
Q

Identify posttest-only and pretest/posttest designs, and explain when researchers might use each one

A

post - measured at the end of the study

pretest - measured at both the end and beginning of study, used to increase internal validity/temporal precedence

79
Q

Explain the difference between concurrent-measures and repeated-measures designs

A

repeated - exposed to one condition at a time but back to back

concurrent - exposed to all conditions at the same time

80
Q

Describe counterbalancing, and explain its role in the internal validity of a within-groups design

A

switch up order so no carryover/practice effect takes place, helps participants not learn about the study through practice

81
Q

Interrogate the construct validity of a manipulated variable in an experiment, and explain the role of manipulation checks in establishing construct validity

A

add a question along with the IV of whether manipulation worked or not, but can reveal study if not done correctly

82
Q

Explain why experimenters usually prioritize internal validity over external validity when it is difficult to achieve both

A

internal = easier to replicate

83
Q

Identify effect size, d, and statistical significance, and explain what they mean for an experiment

A

mean the variables had an impact/interaction with each other

84
Q

Describe the effect size using Cohen’s guidelines

A

small: more than .2
moderate: more than .5
large: more than .8

85
Q

Explain the three threats to internal validity: design confounds, selection effects, and order effects

A

design: problem with design that is affecting the study

selection: one level of IV is different than the other

order: when being exposed to one condition affects how participants respond to other conditions

86
Q

Identify and explain the following nine threats to internal validity: history, maturation, regression, attrition, testing, instrumentation, observer bias, demand characteristics, and placebo effects

A

history
- external factor that systematically effects participants

maturation
- change in behavior that emerges spontaneously over time

regression
- if the first measurement is an outlier, the second one will regress to the mean

attrition
- when certain groups are dropping out of study due to characteristics related to variables being studied

testing
- exposure to measure impacts response

instrumentation
- changes in the instrument/observers which may produce changes in outcomes

observer bias
- observers bias effecting results

demand
- participants guess what purpose of study is

placebo

87
Q

Explain how comparison groups, double-blind studies, and other design choices can help researchers avoid many of these threats to …

A

internal validity

88
Q

Articulate the reasons why a study might result in null effects: not enough variance between groups, too much variance within groups, or a true null effect

A

not enough
- weak manipulation
- insensitive measures
- ceiling and floor effects
- design confound acting in reverse

too much
- measurement error
- individual differences
- situation noise

true
- there really is no difference!

89
Q

Explain why large within-groups variance can obscure a between-groups difference

A

more overlap exists between the members of the groups

90
Q

Describe three causes of within-group variance—measurement error, individual differences, and situation noise—and indicate how each might be reduced

A

measurement
- any factor that can inflate or deflate a person’s true score on the DV

individual
- spread out scores within each group

situation
- external distraction that could cause variability within-groups that obscure between-groups differences

91
Q

Articulate how a factorial design works

A

using factorial designs to study manipulated variables or participant variables

92
Q

Explain reasons for conducting a factorial study.

A

see individual significance as well as interaction effects

93
Q

Explain and identify interaction effects

A

interaction is almost always more important than the main effect

94
Q

Identify two types of interaction effects

A

cross over
- it depends
- makes an X

spreading interaction
- only when
- start together than drift apart on graph

95
Q

Estimate marginal means in a factorial design to look at main effects

A

calculate means for all variables to see main effects

96
Q

Given a factorial notation (e.g., 2 × 2), identify the number of independent variables, the number of levels of each variable, the number of cells in the design, and the number of main effects and interactions that will be relevant

A

2 IVs with 2 levels each
4 cells
2 main effects
1 interaction

97
Q

Explain the basic logic of three-way factorial designs

A

3 main effects

3 two-way interactions

1 three-way interaction

98
Q

Interpret key words that indicate factorial-design language in a journal article

A

method section should show factorial notation (__x__x__)

results section will examine whether the main effects and interactions were significant

99
Q

Interpret key words in popular media articles that indicate a factorial design

A

“it depends” or “only when”

look for participant variables

100
Q

Define the following quasi-experimental designs: nonequivalent control group design, interrupted time-series design, and nonequivalent groups interrupted time-series design

A

nonequivalent control group design
- no random assignment
- at least one treatment and control group
- measuring only once

interrupted time-series design
- no comparison group
- measuring before, during, after event

nonequivalent groups interrupted time-series design
- no random assignment
- with comparison group

101
Q

Using both the ____ and the _____, analyze whether a quasi-experimental design allows you to rule out internal validity threats

A

design; results

102
Q

Explain the strengths and limitations of using a quasi-experimental design

A

real-world opportunities

external validity

ethics

construct validity and statistical validity

103
Q

Interrogate quasi-experimental designs by asking about what three validities

A

construct
external
statistical

104
Q

Explain three differences between small-N and large-N experiments

A

large
- participants are grouped
- basic and applied research
- group averages

small
- participants treated separately
- therapeutic settings
- data for each individual presented

105
Q

Describe three small-N designs (stable-baseline designs, multiple-baseline designs, and reversal designs) and explain how each design addresses internal validity

A

stable
- observe behavior for baseline

multiple
- staggering intro of intervention across different individuals

reversal
- stop treatment to see if behavior reverts back

106
Q

Give examples of questions you would ask about a small-N design to interrogate all four big validities

A

internal
- was study carefully designed?

external
- what are the goals of the study?

construct
- are the definitions and observations precise

statistical
- are they always relevant? (no)

107
Q

Describe the differences among direct replication studies, conceptual replication studies, and
replication-plus-extension studies

A

direct
- repeating original study as closely as possible

conceptual
- not directly repeating, exploring same topic with different method/procedure

replication-plus-extension
- repeating original study as closely as possible while adding new variables to test new Q’s

108
Q

Give examples of types of replication projects in psychology: Open Science Collaboration (OSC) and Many Labs Projects (MLP)

A

OSC
- replicating studies only once
- lower success rate

MLP
- replicating each study more than once
- higher success rate

109
Q

Explain why studies might fail to replicate

A

selective publication

problems with original study
- sample size (small)
- HARKing (hypothesis after the results are known)
- P-hacking (data fishing:running data until receive significant results)

contextually sensitive effects

number of replication attempts

110
Q

Explain ways to improve scientific practices

A

larger sample sizes

report all analyses variable

open science collaboration/framework

preregistration

111
Q

Explain what a meta-analysis does as well as its limitations

A

comprehensive review of literature

limitation: file drawer problem
- null results and opposite results rarely published
- need to be published to give accurate average

112
Q

Describe the difference between generalization mode, in which … , and theory-testing mode, in which …

A

external validity is essential; external validity is less important than internal validity and may not be important at all

113
Q

Articulate the mission of cultural psychology

A

to encourage researchers to test their theories in other cultural contexts; that is, to generalize to other cultures

114
Q

Explain the issues with WEIRD participants

A

western, educated, industrialized, rich, democrat

115
Q

Explain what ecological validity, field setting, and experimental realism are, and how they are related to external validity

A

ecological
- aspect of external validity, focus on whether lab study generalizes to real-world settings

experimental realism
- lab research can be just as realistic as research conducted in real world

116
Q

Explain how to use effective search terms and techniques to find sources

A

and - search for all terms

or - search for one term or another

not - exclude the term

”” - search for entire phrase together

  • truncation - search for anything that comes after the word (ex. stereotyp*)
117
Q

CRAAP test for evaluating resources

A

currency - date of publish

relevance

authority - peer review

accuracy

purpose

118
Q

Generate a reference list following the APA guidelines

A

4 things to look for
- hanging indent
- only beginning of sentence and after : should be capitalized
- journal/source should be italicized
- volume + numbers shouldn’t be italicized

119
Q

which ones are correct?

(Jones and Smith, 2012) or (Jones & Smith, 2012)
(Jones et al., 2019) or (Jones et al. 2019)

A

(Jones & Smith, 2012); (Jones et al., 2019)

Research Methods 344 (4 decks)

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