final exam

Question 1

define: non-experimental research

Answer 1

a research strategy that involves determining whether an association exists between variables by comparing two or more groups of participants that represent different values of one variable to see if the groups also differ on another variable

Question 2

define: quasi-independent variable

Answer 2

a predictor variable in non-experimental or quasi-experimental research

Question 3

define: quasi-experimental research

Answer 3

A research strategy that involves varying the levels of one variable and measuring another variable, but that lacks the control needed to establish a cause and effect association between variables

Question 4

true or false: quasi-experimental research involves more control/manipulation than non-experimental

Answer 4

true

Question 5

the term non-experimental research specifically refers to research looking at the difference between ____ ____ of two or more groups of participants

Answer 5

mean scores

Question 6

why is the association between variables that has been established through non-experimental group comparisons sometimes described as correlational research?

Answer 6

because of lack of control

Question 7

true or false: some sources categorize quasi-experimental, correlational, and descriptive research all as types of non-experimental research

Answer 7

true

Question 8

what types of designs can refer to both non-experimental and experimental group designs?

Answer 8

• between subjects designs
• within subjects designs

Question 9

what types of statistical analysis can be used for between subjects and within subjects designs?

Answer 9

• t-test
• ANOVA (analysis of variance)

Question 10

define: non-equivalent group designs

Answer 10

a study in which the different groups of participants are not randomly assigned to groups and are therefore considered not to be equivalent

Question 11

what is a threat to internal validity in non-equivalent group designs?

Answer 11

individual differences

Question 12

what are the 3 types of non-equivalent group designs and define them

Answer 12

1. differential research designs = a study that compares a dependent variable between two or more pre-existing groups of participants (ex: self-esteem and academic performance - cannot randomly assign people to have different levels of self-esteem)
2. Post-test only non-equivalent control group design = a study that compares a dependent variable (outcome) between a group of participants who received a treatment and a group of participants who did not receive treatment
3. Pretest-posttest non-equivalent control group design = a study that compares a dependent variable (outcome) between a group of participants who received a treatment and a group of participants who did not receive a treatment

Question 13

what does a pre-test control?

Answer 13

time related variables

Question 14

what type of design is a non-equivalent group design?

Answer 14

a between subjects non-experimental group design

Question 15

what is a within-subjects non-experimental group design?

Answer 15

pre-post design = a study that compares a dependent variable (outcome) measured in one group of participants before and after they receive an intervention (no control group is used)

Question 16

why is a pre-post design considered a within-subjects experimental group design?

Answer 16

because it’s the same group of participants who is measured on the dependent variable two (or more) separate times

Question 17

what are the three types of pre-post designs and define them

Answer 17

1. Pretest-posttest design = each individual is measured only once before and once after treatment
2. Time-series design = each participant is measured multiple times before and after treatment
3. Interrupted time-series design = the “intervention” is not manipulated by the researcher

Question 18

define: developmental research designs

Answer 18

Research designs used to evaluate changes that occur as people get older

Question 19

what are the 2 types of developmental research designs and define them

Answer 19

1. Cross-sectional design = a research design in which people of different ages are compared at the same point in time
2. Longitudinal study design = a research design in which the same participants are studied over time using multiple measurements - individual differences do not provide an alternative explanation for results

Question 20

another term for an independent variable is a ___

Answer 20

factor

Question 21

define: factorial design

Answer 21

a research design that includes two or more independent variables (factors)

Question 22

define: two-factor design

Answer 22

a study with two independent variables

Question 23

define: higher-order factorial design

Answer 23

a study with three or more independent variables

Question 24

why do we use factorial designs?

Answer 24

• Humans are complicated and influenced by a variety of factors
• Allows us to look at factors acting together that uniquely affect behaviour in ways that are different from either factor acting alone

Question 25

what is the simplest form of a factorial design?

Answer 25

2 independent variables with 2 levels = 4 different study conditions with their own means

Question 26

what is a 2 factor design?

Answer 26

2 levels of the first independent variable times 3 levels of the second independent variable

Question 27

what is a higher-order factorial design?

Answer 27

2 levels of the first independent variable times 3 levels of the second independent variable times 2 levels of the third variable

Question 28

what does the statistical analysis involve for factorial designs?

Answer 28

looking at the mean DV scores when considering each IV alone (main effects) and also mean DV scores for each level of each IV combination with each level of the other IVs (interactions) using an ANOVA test

Question 29

what type of p value are we looking for in factorial designs?

Answer 29

less than 0.5

Question 30

define: collapsed across

Answer 30

just comparing one independent variable at a time and pretending the other does not exist

Question 31

true or false: if a graph has parallel lines, there is an interaction

Answer 31

false

Question 32

true or false: if a graph does not have parallel lines, there is no interaction

Answer 32

false

Question 33

what is a mixed design?

Answer 33

Mixed design = a factorial study that includes at least one between-subjects factor (exposed to only one level of the IV) and at least one within subjects factor (exposed to more than one level of the IV)

Question 34

define: combined strategy

Answer 34

a factorial study that includes at least one true experimental independent variable (random assignment to IV level) and one quasi-independent variable (assignment to IV level based on a pre-existing characteristic)

Question 35

define: correlational designs

Answer 35

Looking at the association between 2 variables at a time

Question 36

true or false: when the correlation is 0, there is no association between the variables

Answer 36

true

Question 37

true or false: as the correlation gets closer to 1, the correlation gets stronger

Answer 37

true

Question 38

what can correlations demonstrate?

Answer 38

- Alternate-forms reliability - Internal consistency - Concurrent validity - Convergent & divergent validity - predictions - predictive validity - academic success

Question 39

define: regression

Answer 39

A statistical process of finding a linear equation that produces the most accurate predicted values of a dependent variable (Y) using a predictor variable (X)

Question 40

define: multiple regression

Answer 40

involves two or more predictor variables

Question 41

what is the regression equation and what do the symbols mean?

Answer 41

Y = bX + a - Y = a specific value of the dependent variable - X = a specific value of the independent (predictor) variable - Slope (b) = how much Y changes when X increases by 1 - Y-intercept (a) = the value at which the regression line intersects the Y axis

Question 42

what are the limitations of correlational designs?

Answer 42

- Can’t determine causal associations - Directionality problem - Third variable problem

Question 43

define: descriptive research

Answer 43

a research strategy that involves measuring variables as they currently exist, without manipulations, comparisons or evaluations or their associations with other variables

Question 44

how is descriptive research usually presented?

Answer 44

through numerical data like averages, means and percentages

Question 45

what are the different types of descriptive research?

Answer 45

- survey research - observational research - case studies

Question 46

what are 2 issues with behavioural observations as measurements of variables?

Answer 46

1. The natural behaviour of participants can be disrupted by the presence of the researcher (or recording equipment) 2. Observational measurements may be more subjective because they rely on the interpretations of the observer

Question 47

what are three recommendations for ensuring objectivity in behavioural observations?

Answer 47

1. Develop a list of well-defined behaviour categories 2. Use well-trained observers 3. Use multiple observers to establish inter-rater reliability (at least with a sample of observations)

Question 48

what are the three types of behavioural observation?

Answer 48

1. Naturalistic observation = as unobtrusively as possible (without being noticed), researchers directly observe and record the naturally-occurring behaviour of participants as they engage in their real-life activities 2. Participant observation = researchers directly observe and record behaviour of participants in their real-life settings while engaging in the same activities as the participants 3. Contrived observation = researchers directly observe and record the behaviour of participants in environments or situations that are specifically arranged to facilitate the occurrence of the behaviour(s) of interest

Question 49

what are the three ways to quantify behavioural observations?

Answer 49

1. Frequency method = the observer counts the number of occurrences that each behaviour occurs within a specific time period 2. Duration method = the observer records how much time a participant spend engaging in a particular behaviour 3. Interval method = the observation period (e.g. 30 minutes) is divided into shorter intervals (e.g. 10 seconds) and the observer records whether or not the behaviour occurred during each interval

Question 50

define: single subject experimental designs

Answer 50

Involve the manipulation of an independent variable and control of extraneous variables to infer the existence of a cause-and-effect association using measurements for a single participant

Question 51

how are single subject designs different from case studies?

Answer 51

case-studies do not necessarily involve the manipulation or control of any variables so they are not experiments

Question 52

define: phase

Answer 52

a series of consecutive observations of the same individual under the same conditions

Question 53

define: baseline phase

Answer 53

a series of observations made before any treatment is administered (identified by the letter A)

Question 54

define: treatment phase

Answer 54

a series of observations made while the treatment is being administered (identified by the letter B)

Question 55

define: ABAB design

Answer 55

a single-subject experimental design consisting of four phases: 1. Baseline 2. Treatment 3. Return-to-baseline 4. Second treatment phase (aka reversal design)

Question 56

what are three ways to control extraneous variables in ABAB designs?

Answer 56

1. Baseline measurements are taken before the intervention starts 2. Repeated observations are obtained during each treatment condition to ensure that factors other than the treatment are ruled out 3. Replication - the change between the baseline and treatment conditions must be demonstrated a second time

Question 57

what are some examples of meaningful changes in ABAB designs?

Answer 57

- Change in average level - Immediate change in level - Change in trend (up or down) - A longer latency of change (if the behaviour eventually changes but does not change right away), it suggests that the change is less likely to be due to the treatment

Question 58

define: multiple baseline design

Answer 58

a study that begins with two or more baseline phases (observations made before any intervention begins), then a treatment is initiated under one set of conditions while the baseline observations continue for the second condition, then after a short period of time the treatment is initiated in the second condition

Question 59

define: Multiple-baseline across subjects

Answer 59

each baseline corresponds to the same behaviour for more than one participant

Question 60

define: Multiple-baseline across behaviours

Answer 60

each baseline corresponds to two distinct behaviours for the same participant

Question 61

define: Multiple-baseline across environments

Answer 61

each baseline corresponds to the same behaviour but in different environments

Question 62

define the term significant in regard to nonexperimental and quasi-experimental research designs

Answer 62

means that it is very unlikely that the difference between the groups of scores would occur if there were no corresponding difference in the population

Question 63

how are non-experimental and quasi-experimental designs set up?

Answer 63

the groups are usually defined in terms of a specific participant variable (e.g., college graduate/no college) or in terms of time (e.g., before and after treatment). These two methods of defining groups produce two general categories of nonexperimental and quasi-experimental designs: Between-subjects designs, also known as nonequivalent group designs Within-subjects designs, also known as pre–post designs

Question 64

what is an example of a non-experimental design study?

Answer 64

A study comparing self-esteem scores for children with a learning disability versus scores for children without a learning disability

Question 65

what is the distinction between correlational research and differential research?

Answer 65

- In differential research, participant differences in one variable are used to create separate groups, and measurements of the second variable are made within each group. The researcher then compares the measurements for one group with the measurements for another group, typically looking at mean differences between groups - A correlational study, on the other hand, treats all the participants as a single group and simply measures the two variables for each individual