Final Exam Flashcards

Question

Hypertension

Answer 1

High blood pressure, higher than 140/90 - creates severe complications like heart disease, stroke, and sometimes death. may sometimes have no symptoms -Blood Pressure is the force that a persons blood exerts against the walls of their blood vessels.

Answer 2

rapid loss of renal function due to damage to the kidneys; formerly called acute renal failure - rapid kidney failure that can happen in hours or days. - causes a build up of waste products in your blood and makes it hard For your kidneys to keep the right balance of fluid in your body. Symptoms: decreased urine output, swelling due to fluid retention, nausea, fatigue, and shortness of breath.

Answer 3

- condition in which there is an inability of the heart to pump enough blood through the body to supply the tissues and organs with nutrients and oxygen. - symptoms: shortness of breath, fatigue, swollen legs, and rapid heartbeat. - treatment: medicine( beta blocker, ACE inhibitior, vasodilator), less salt, limit fluid intake, exercise, quit smoking.

Answer 4

A group of lung diseases that block airflow and make it difficult to breathe. - Symptoms: shortness of breath, wheezing, chronic cough. - main cause: smoking, air pollution, chemical fumes, dust four stages: mild, moderate, severe, very severe Medicine: bronchodilator, steroid, oxygen therapy

Answer 5

A chronic allergic disorder characterized by episodes of severe breathing difficulty, coughing, and wheezing. - The EPR-3 guideline classification divides asthma severity into four groups: intermittent, persistent-mild, persistent-moderate, and persistent-severe. - Step 1 - mild intermittent asthma. Symptoms fewer than two times a week. Does not have problems between flare-ups. ... Step 2 - mild persistent asthma. Symptoms more than two times a week, but no more than once a day. ... Step 3 - moderate persistent asthma. Symptoms every day. ... Step 4 - severe persistent asthma. Constant symptoms.

Answer 6

A serious disease that destroys lung tissue and causes breathing difficulties. - Emphysema is a lung condition that causes shortness of breath. In people with emphysema, the air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) are damaged. Over time, the inner walls of the air sacs weaken and rupture — creating larger air spaces instead of many small ones.

Answer 7

inflammation of the bronchi persisting over a long time. - Acute bronchitis is often caused by a viral respiratory infection and improves by itself. Symptoms of bronchitis include coughing up thickened mucus and shortness of breath. Treatments usually includes soothing remedies to help with coughing, which may last weeks. Antibiotics are not usually recommended.

Answer 8

the occlusion of one or more coronary arteries caused by plaque buildup (heart attack). - The usual cause of sudden blockage in a coronary artery is the formation of a blood clot (thrombus).

Answer 9

FSH and LH

Answer 10

A sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity. - maintains skin and vessel function. -increase blood coagulation - exert control over other hormonal development via protein synthesis

Answer 11

- stimulates development and maintenance of endometrium that prepares it for implantation. - supports pregnancy - breast development - lead to increased aldosterone - increase basal body temp

Answer 12

inflammation of the lining of the vagina - brought on by bad hygiene, foreign bodies, intestinal parasites, STI, systemic antibodies. - signs and symptoms: burning, itching, dysuris,dyspareania(painful sex) and malodorous odor.

Answer 13

malignant cells of the vagina Associated with DES (diethylstilbestrol)administration to mother during pregnancy which ended in the early 1970s; HPV ii. Genetic risk iii. Obesity, smoking, estrogen Rx c. S&S - *abnormal bleeding- most common sign; pain, dysuria, constipation, vaginal discharge

Answer 14

a. Etiology - strongly linked to HPV! b. Risk factors - smoking, poor diet, multiple (2 or more) sexual partners, onset of intercourse at a young age. c. Long latent phase which ↑efficacy of the Pap smear. d. S&S - abnormal vaginal bleeding and discharge; if advanced disease - pain, fistulas, enlarged local lymph nodes, hematuria e. Rx - removal of the cancer i. Electrocautery ii. Cryosurgery iii. Laser therapy iv. Conization v. Hysterectomy vi. Radiation if advanced

Answer 15

a. Etiology - young age, unmarried status, abortion, multiple sex partners, IUD, failure to use contraception b. S&S- abdominal pain, purulent discharge, fever, ↑sedrate, ↑WBC c. DX - C-reactive protein, ultrasound, laparoscopy

Answer 16

narrowing of the opening of the prepuce over the glans penis

Answer 17

thick, cheesy secretion that accumulates under the labia minora or the male foreskin

Answer 18

A long, coiled duct on the outside of the testis in which sperm mature. *inflammation of the epididymis

Answer 19

undescended testicles

Answer 20

Muscular pain, "muscle aches"

Answer 21

joint pain

Answer 22

sexual desire

Answer 23

Erection is under the control of the parasympathetic nervous system, Ejaculation and relaxation are under the control of the sympathetic nervous system, Male sexual function depends on intact reflexes, higher neural function, and a working vascular system.

Answer 24

a. Define - inability to achieve or maintain an erection for sexual satisfaction b. Etiology - Psychogenic - anxiety, depression, mood changes: Organic - damage or dysfunction of the nervous system, hormonal imbalances, vascular problems that reduce blood flow to the penis, drug use, direct penile problems: DM, Old age, Atherosclerosis, Hypertension, Cigarette smoke, Heart disease, Alcohol c. Treatment i. Determine underlying cause and treat ii. Counseling for psychogenic issues iii. Hormone replacement iv. Drug therapy v. Prosthesis/implant

Answer 25

a. Define - Painful prolonged erection not associated with sexual stimulation. b. Etiology- Occurs frequently with sickle cell anemia, cancers, sildenafil, and sometimes in newborns: Occurs with alcohol, infection, leukemia, stokes, spinal cord injuries c. Pathophysiology- Engorgement of penile vasculature with causing hypoxia and ischemia with resultant inflammatory process and scarring d. Treatment- Medical emergency: Rx - relieve urinary retention, pain control, hydration, sedation, ice packs, local instillation of drugs

Answer 26

a. Etiology -Related to poor hygiene, HPV, ultravoiletradiation, immunocompromise b. Pathophysiology -Chronic irritation leads to chronic inflammation and rebuilding of cells which allows for aberrant DNA and metaplastic cell development c. Rx - topicals, laser removal, penectomy

Answer 27

a. Risk group -Most common in adolescents b. Patho - Testicles rotate around in the truncia vaginalisand the vasculature twists in the spermatic cord choking off blood supply to the testes. c. S&S - unilateral pain that radiates to the inguinal canal, swollen, large testicle; also have non symmetrical testes. d. Rx - surgical correction and possible orchiectomy(removal of testicle(s).

Answer 28

a. Etiology -Most common in Caucasians, Closelyassociated with cryptorchidism, Familial predisposition b. Early S&S - enlargement of one testicle which may be associated with abdominal or groin heaviness and ache. c. Metastasizes quickly d. S&S of metastatic spread - Lower extremity swelling, back pain, cough, hemoptysis, dizziness, gynecomastia e. Prevention is the key - STE monthly f. Rx - good prognosis especially with early surgical excision. Chemotherapy and radiation may also be used based on stage and grade.

Answer 29

a. Uncommon b. Bacterial entry into the prostate c. S&S fever, chills, malaise, myalgia, arthralgia, frequent & painful urination, urethral discharge. d. DX based on urine characteristics and culture with a manual rectal exam. e. Rx with antibiotics

Answer 30

a. Long term infectious process. b. S&S frequent UTIs, less likely to produce myalgia and arthralgia than the acute form. c. RX - requires longer term antibiotic therapy due to poor penetration of the antibiotics into the prostate.

Answer 31

a. Chronic inflammation without infection or chronic pelvic pain b. S&S - back, rectal, penile, testicular, and scrotal pain; ED; painful ejaculations; ↓libido c. Rx varies based on the healthcare provider; Symptomatic relief and possibly antibiotics

Answer 32

a. Very common b. Unknown cause c. Risk factors - age, family hx, African American race, dietary fat and meat, estrogen d. S&S - small weak urinary stream; post void dribbling; frequency; nocturia; retention; frequent UTIs; hydonephrosis; Renal failure e. Diagnosis i. ↑PSA ii. Urine studies iii. √creatinine as a sign of ↓ GFR and renal failure f. Treatment i. Watch and wait ii. Rx UTIs iii. Drugs to reduce prostate size and relax smooth muscle iv. TURP (transurethral resection of the prostate) if severe but not favored due to iatrogenic impotence

Answer 33

a. Most common male cancer b. Slow growing cancer c. Risk factors - age; African American race; heredity; ↑fat and meat diet; Androgens d. Metastasizes to pelvic bones, vertebral column and ribs e. Pain is the first sign with S&S resembling BPH f. Routine PSA screenings >50 years g. Diagnosis is based on PSA level h. Rx - surgical removal, hormonal therapy, radiation

Answer 34

a. Etiology - HPV - 70 strains of the virus b. Inoculation is followed in 6- 8 weeks by soft fleshy lesions on the external genitalia or cauliflower shaped lesions on the internal portions of the genitalia- lifelong infection- may not be evident for years c. Most common STI and is oncogenic d. S&S - dyspareunia (painful intercourse) and the lesions e. Treatments i. Topical agents ii. Cryosurgery - freezing iii. Laser removal iv. Electrocautery - burning v. Surgery vi. Sexual abstinence during treatment

Answer 35

a. Spread via contact b. Grow in neurons c. Dormant periods d. Passed to infant during birth if active (lethal) e. S&S - tingling; itching; pain, pustules and vesicles that burst and crust; fever, HA, malaise, lymphadenopathy, pain, dysuria, retention f. S&S may occur in the CNS and throat g. First infections last 2- 4 weeks with subsequent infections shorter in duration and less severe symptoms h. Treat symptoms - antiviral agents to reduce viral loads and shorten outbreaks i. Hand washing imperative

Answer 36

a. Normal vaginal yeast is Candida albicans. b. Infection is caused by an overgrowth of resident yeast due to i. Antibiotics ii. Immunosuppression iii. Pregnancy iv. Birth control pills v. DM c. S&S i. Irritation ii. Itching iii. Dysuria iv. Dyspareunia v. Thick white cheesy discharge vi. May grow in skin folds d. Treatment i. Topical antifungals ii. Systemic antifungals iii. Breathable clothing

Answer 37

a. Colonizes in the male urethra and prostate b. Males are generally asymptomatic c. Females have foul smelling green-yellow discharge with the general S&S of infection. d. Increases the risk for HIV and infertility e. Rx with metronidazole concurrently.

Answer 38

a. Parasite b. Causes urethritis, PID, pneumonia c. S&S in females- range from none to S & S of infection, dysuria, abnormal vaginal discharge, bleeding after intercourse d. Can be localized near the point of entry or spread into the pelvic and abdominal cavities. e. S&S in males - urethritis, erythema, tenderness, discharge, dysuria, itching f. May progress to prostatitis, epididymitis, and infertility g. Rx with antibiotics simultaneously h. THE MOST COMMON STD IN THE US.

Answer 39

a. N. gonorrhoeae is a pus forming bacterium b. Prevalent in the Southeastern U.S. c. May gain access through the GU tract, eyes, mouth, rectum or skin. d. S&S 2-5 days post exposure e. The infection spreads through the effected system. Infant eyes if present during childbirth. This is way babies get ointment in their eyes when they are born. f. Local S & S of infection g. Males - *yellow green discharge h. Females - dysuria, dyspareunia, irregular bleeding with increased bleeding around menses i. Rectal, pharngeal, urethral, & cervical j. RX with antibiotics

Answer 40

a. Spread from contact with syphilitic lesion b. Three stages c. More common in MSM (Men who have sex with men) d. More common in African Americans

Answer 41

i. Chancre - painless lesion 10-90 days post exposure ii. Regional lymphadenopathy iii. Highly contagious iv. Chancre heals in 3-12 weeks

Answer 42

i. Systemic dissemination - lesions on skin, mucous membranes, lymph nodes, meninges, stomach and liver ii. Rash development 2 weeks to 3 months post chancre iii. Hair loss iv. Secondary lesions are very contagious

Answer 43

i. Granulomas (gummas) form in bone, skin, liver, heart, and brain causing necrosis in those who do not heal or remain asymptomatic. ii. Delayed response after years of latency and multiplication iii. CV system 1. Aneurysms, valvular insufficiency aortic arteritis iv. CNS 1. Blindness, dementia, ataxia, hearing loss v. Liver vi. Bones vii. Testes

Answer 44

the process of regulating the extracellular fluid volume, body fluid osmolality, and plasma concentrations of electrolytes

Answer 45

within the cell

Answer 46

outside the cell

Answer 47

pertaining to spaces between cells in a tissue or organ

Answer 48

fluid found in the interstitial tissue space - Third space is also a term used to refer to, for example, the bowel with an ileus, and the collection of fluid therein, usually post-operatively.

Answer 49

the pressure created by water. Hydrostatic pressure creates a pushing motion of fluid. Anything that increases the amount of water in a container (cell, vascular space) increases the flow of water out of the container. Hydrostatic pressure is increased by adding water to the vascular space via IV for example.

Answer 50

pertaining to a gluelike substance

Answer 51

The pressure of water to move, typically into the capillary, as the result of the presence of plasma proteins.

Answer 52

Ability of substances to diffuse through capillary walls into the tissue spaces.

Answer 53

Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

Answer 54

Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

Answer 55

Any fluid having the same solute concentration as another fluid to which it is being compared. - Isotonic solutions have a concentration of dissolved particles similar to plasma, and an osmolality of 250 to 375 mOsm/L. - Common examples of isotonic solutions are 0.9% normal saline and lactated ringers.

Answer 56

Because isotonic solutions have the same concentration of solutes as plasma, infused isotonic solution doesn't move into cells. Rather, it remains within the extracellular fluid compartment and is distributed between the intravascular and interstitial spaces, thus increasing intravascular volume.

Answer 57

If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water will leave the cell, and the cell will shrink. In an isotonic environment, the relative concentrations of solute and water are equal on both sides of the membrane. There is no net water movement, so there is no change in the size of the cell.

Answer 58

Because isotonic solutions have the same concentration of solutes as plasma, infused isotonic solution doesn't move into cells. Rather, it remains within the extracellular fluid compartment and is distributed between the intravascular and interstitial spaces, thus increasing intravascular volume.

Answer 59

-0.9% Saline. -5% dextrose in water (D5W)**also used as a hypotonic solution after it is administered because the body absorbs the dextrose BUT it is considered isotonic) -5% Dextrose in 0.225% saline (D5W1/4NS) -Lactated Ringer's.

Answer 60

the #of particles in a solution on one side of a membrane is less than the # of particles in a solution on the other side of the membrane

Answer 61

When a hypotonic solution is administered intravenously, fluid shifts out of the bloodstream to the area of higher concentration in the interstitial and intracellular spaces.

Answer 62

It also means that the extracellular fluid has a higher concentration of water in the solution than does the cell. In this situation, water will follow its concentration gradient and enter the cell, causing the cell to expand.

Answer 63

A hypotonic solution has a low solute concentration than the inside of the cells (solute concentration in the cell is high). Osmotic forces then cause water from a solution to enter the cells. The cell eventually stretches and bursts in the process becoming lysis.

Answer 64

Hypotonic: D5W (in the body) 0.25% NaCl. 0.45% NaCl (half normal saline) 2.5% Dextrose.

Answer 65

Hypertonic solutions such as 3% saline solutions contain higher concentrations of solutes than those found in human serum. Because of this discrepancy in concentration, these fluids are osmotically active and therefore, will cause fluid shifts

Answer 66

Because the cell has a relatively higher concentration of water, water will leave the cell, and the cell will shrink.

Answer 67

3% Saline. 5% Saline. 10% Dextrose in Water (D10W) 5% Dextrose in 0.9% Saline. 5% Dextrose in 0.45% saline. 5% Dextrose in Lactated Ringer's.

Answer 68

A serious reduction in the body's water content

Answer 69

Vomiting and diarrhea Excessive sweating Untreated diabetes mellitus No access to water Lack of thirst in elderly

Answer 70

-Weight losses of 6-10 pounds in one week -Tenting -Filling or emptying of venous filling more than 6-10 seconds -Flat veins in supine client -Tongue is dry -Sunken eyeballs -Blood pressure decreased with elevated pulse rate

Answer 71

Initial management includes placement of an intravenous or intraosseous line and rapid administration of 20 mL/kg of an isotonic crystalloid (eg, lactated Ringer solution, 0.9% sodium chloride). Additional fluid boluses may be required depending on the severity of the dehydration.

Answer 72

a condition in which a person feels overly pressured by demands

Answer 73

Heart failure. Cirrhosis. Kidney failure. Nephrotic syndrome. Premenstrual edema. Pregnancy.

Answer 74

Rapid weight gain. Noticeable swelling (edema) in your arms, legs and face. Swelling in your abdomen. Cramping, headache, and stomach bloating. Shortness of breath. High blood pressure. Heart problems, including congestive heart failure.

Answer 75

Crystalloid fluids

Answer 76

Hypovolemic shock (hemorrhagic shock, non-hemorrhagic shock)

Answer 77

Postural hypotension Weight loss/Dryness Inelastic skin Increase pulse and respiration Renal failure Dizziness (orthostatic/postural hypotension) Decreased urination (oliguria) Dry mouth, dry skin. Thirst and/or nausea. Weight loss (except in third spacing, where the fluid will still be in the body but inaccessible) Muscle weakness and lethargy.

Answer 78

trauma to vessels or tissues, fluid loss from GI tract (vomiting/diarrhea)

Answer 79

The elasticity of skin, or turgor, is an indicator of fluid status in most patients (Scales and Pilsworth, 2008). Assessing skin turgor is a quick and simple test performed by pinching a fold of skin. In a well-hydrated person, the skin will immediately fall back to its normal position when released.

Answer 80

Antidiuretic hormone stimulates water reabsorbtion by stimulating insertion of "water channels" or aquaporins into the membranes of kidney tubules. These channels transport solute-free water through tubular cells and back into blood, leading to a decrease in plasma osmolarity and an increase osmolarity of urine.

Answer 81

Also, overweight and obese subjects demonstrated a significantly larger decrease in body mass after exercise than lean controls (P<0.05). Conclusion: Obese subjects demonstrate a larger deviation in markers of fluid and sodium balance than their lean counterparts during prolonged moderate-intensity exercise.

Answer 82

About 15.5 cups (3.7 liters) of fluids for men. About 11.5 cups (2.7 liters) of fluids a day for women

Answer 83

The density of water is 1 kilogram per liter(kg/L) at 39.2°. This means that 1 liter (L) of water weighs 1 kilogram (kg) and 1 milliliter (mL) of water weighs 1 gram (g).

Answer 84

700mL per day, 30 mL per hour

Answer 85

An ionic compound whose aqueous solution conducts an electric current

Answer 86

A. Extracellular B. Movement: If sodium ions are outside of a cell, they will tend to move into the cell based on both their concentration gradient (the lower concentration of Na +start superscript, plus, end superscript in the cell) and the voltage across the membrane (the more negative charge on the inside of the membrane). C. A normal blood sodium level is between 135 and 145 milliequivalents per liter (mEq/L).

Answer 87

- Hypernatremia is a serum sodium concentration > 145 mEq/L (> 145 mmol/L). It implies a deficit of total body water relative to total body sodium caused by water intake being less than water losses. - S&S: Hypernatremia typically causes thirst. The most serious symptoms of hypernatremia result from brain dysfunction. Severe hypernatremia can lead to confusion, muscle twitching, seizures, coma, and death.

Answer 88

- deficient sodium in the blood, is decrease in serum sodium concentration < 136 mEq/L -S&S: Nausea and vomiting. Headache. Confusion. Loss of energy, drowsiness and fatigue. Restlessness and irritability. Muscle weakness, spasms or cramps. Seizures. Coma.

Answer 89

Potassium is a mineral and an electrolyte. It helps your muscles work, including the muscles that control your heartbeat and breathing. Potassiumcomes from the food you eat. Your body uses the potassium it needs. The extra potassium that your body does not need is removed from your blood by your kidneys. - It exists predominantly in the intracellular fluid at concentrations of 140 to 150 meq/liter and in the extracellular fluid at concentrations of 3.5 to 5 meq/liter. - Movement: It helps keep the water (the amount of fluid inside and outside the body's cells) and electrolyte balance of the body. Potassium is also important in how nerves and muscles work. Potassium levels often change with sodium levels. - Levels of potassium controlled by: The body maintains the right level of potassium by matching the amount of potassium consumed with the amount lost. Potassium is consumed in food and drinks that contain electrolytes (including potassium) and lost primarily in urine. Some potassium is also lost through the digestive tract and in sweat.

Answer 90

excessive potassium in the blood

Answer 91

M.A.C.H.I.N.E. M - Medications - ACE inhibitors, NSAIDS A - Acidosis - Metabolic and respiratory C - Cellular destruction - Burns, traumatic injury H - Hypoaldosteronism, hemolysis I - Intake - Excesssive N - Nephrons, renal failure E - Excretion - Impaired

Answer 92

Muscle weakness Urine, oliguria, anuria Respiratory distress Decreased cardiac contractility ECG changes (peaked T at 6, prolonged PR at 7, absent P and wide QRS at 8-9) Reflexes, hyperreflexia, or areflexia (flaccid)

Answer 93

deficient potassium in the blood less than 3.5 mEq/L (3.5 mmol/L)

Answer 94

B.A.D. L.O.A.D. B-arters/Conns syndrome(hyperaldosteronism) A-lkalosis D-iuretics L-axative abuse O-ther causes: insulin overdose A-cute glucose load D-iarrhoea

Answer 95

Fatigue, Anorexia, N/V, Muscle weakness, Decreased GI motility, Dysrhythmias, Paresthesia, Flat T waves on ECG

Answer 96

-Infection of the outer layer of the eye. -also known as pink eye may be inflammatory or infectious in nature - Conjunctivitis is very contagious and handwashing is the most important aspect of prevention of spread

Answer 97

i. Chemical ii. Allergen iii. Blood borne pathogens iv. Physical irritants v. Bacterial vi. Viral vii. Chlamydia and other sexually transmitted infections viii. Birth

Answer 98

i. Redness ii. Purulent drainage iii. Tearing/lacrimation iv. Transient blurred vision v. Itching vi. Photophobia vii. Burning viii. Foreign body sensation

Answer 99

inflammation of cornea which can cause scarring and lead to blindness.

Answer 100

i. Infection- HSV 1 commonly ii. Birth iii. Allergies iv. Ischemia v. Deficient tears- dry eyes

Answer 101

the aqueous humor (liquid part of the eye) increases in volume which increases the pressure inside the eye and puts pressure on the ocular disk which causes it to become cupped in shape. This distortion of the ocular disk leads to loss of visual fields, halos around the field of vision and pain. If left untreated the retina will detach from the disk and cause blindness.

Answer 102

A. the passageway for the fluid from the aqueous humor (Iridocorneal angle) is open so eye drops must be used to decrease the pressure. Surgery may be done to widen the angle in some cases i. Risk factors 1. Age 40 and > 2. African Americans 3. Trauma 4. Uveitis 5. Corticosteroid therapy 6. DM 7. Family HX ii. Diagnosed by pressures in the eye greater than 9-21 mmHG and changes to the optic disk

Answer 103

the Iris extends closer to the Iridocorneal angle and blocks the flow of fluid from inside the eye. This type is most common in Asians and Eskimos and requires surgical intervention.

Answer 104

A. opacification of the lens which commonly occurs as we age especially noted after age 65. a. Risk factors i. Smoking ii. Sun exposure (UVB) iii. Corticosteroids iv. DM v. Trauma vi. Renal disease b. Blurred or distorted vision is the main symptom c. Dx - by eye exam d. Rx- glasses for as long as possible and then surgery to replace the lens.

Answer 105

A.damage to the small blood vessels due to poor perfusion of the eye lead to the new growth of blood vessels (Neovascularization) which are fragile, leak, bleed and grow over the retina which causes blindness. a. Risk factors i. DM ii. Sickle cell dz iii. Sarcoidosis iv. Hyperviscosity of the blood

Answer 106

Definition: the two layers of the retina separate which allows the vitreous fluid to accumulate between the layers a. Risk Factors - Infections, tumors, cataract removal predispose b. S&S - Acute vision loss, Floaters, Flashing lights, No pain c. RX - this is an emergency and the retina must be repaired surgically

Answer 107

- the macula deteriorates a. Risk factors i. Age ii. Female iii. Smoking iv. Low dietary carotenoids v. High dietary fat vi. Genetics b. S&S - Loss of central vision, cannot distinguish facial features, cannot do close work like needlepoint

Answer 108

Definition: Impacted ear wax a. S&S - loss of hearing, sneezing, feelings of fullness, tinnitus (ringing in the ears). b. Rx - do not stick anything in the ear to get the wax out - use a bulb syringe and warm water

Answer 109

Definition: Swimmer's ear a. Risk factors - having a wet ear canal (swimming and propped baby bottles are common), trauma b. S&S i. Itching ii. Redness iii. Tenderness iv. Drainage v. Hearing loss c. RX - antibiotic and steroid drops

Answer 110

Definition: Inflammation in the middle ear with fluid collection a. Risk factors i. Non breast fed ii. Male iii. Day care iv. Smoking families v. Pacifiers and propped bottles vi. Upper respiratory tract infections vii. Childhood c. S&S i. Pain ii. Fever iii. Hearing loss iv. Poor feeding v. Pulling ear vi. Night waking vii. Irritability d. Complications i. Complications ii. Hearing loss iii. Speech impairment iv. Mastoiditis and degradation v. CNS infections are rare e. RX - antibiotics. If it is recurrent (3 times in 6 months or 4 times in one year) prophylactic antibiotics, remove the cause, tympanoplasty tubes

Answer 111

Definition: stretching and distention of the inner ear causing hearing loss, vertigo, tinnitus, pallor, nausea & vomiting, and diaphoresis. Rx is to protect the patient's safety as a priority, avoid head movement, medicines are available to decrease inner ear distention, and shunts can be placed to drain the fluid. a. Cause - unknown b. Risk factors i. Trauma ii. Infection iii. Pituitary, adrenal or thyroid insufficiency iv. Vascular disorders

Answer 112

any malignant growth or tumor caused by abnormal and uncontrolled cell division.......

Answer 113

One is known as benign and the other as malignant. A benign tumor is a tumor that does not invade its surrounding tissue or spread around the body. A malignant tumor is a tumor that may invade its surrounding tissue or spread around the body.

Answer 114

A. oma: Suffix meaning a swelling or tumor. Many words in medicine end in -oma. b.

Answer 115

Carcinoma: Cancers derived from epithelial cells. This group includes many of the most common cancers that occur in older adults. Nearly all cancers developing in the breast, prostate, lung, pancreas, and colon are carcinomas.

Answer 116

A broad group of cancers that begin in the bone and soft connective tissues

Answer 117

Older age. A personal or family history of cancer. Using tobacco. Obesity. Alcohol. Some types of viral infections, such as human papillomavirus (HPV) Specific chemicals. Exposure to radiation, including ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

Answer 118

People with weakened immune systems are at higher risk of getting severely sick.

Answer 119

I. Tumor suppressor genes are normal genes that slow down cell division, repair DNA mistakes, or tell cells when to die (a process known as apoptosis or programmed cell death). When tumor suppressor genes don't work properly, cells can grow out of control, which can lead to cancer. ii. An oncogene is a gene that has the potential to cause cancer. In tumor cells, these genes are often mutated, or expressed at high levels. ... If, through mutation, normal genes promoting cellular growth are up-regulated (gain-of-function mutation), they will predispose the cell to cancer; thus, they are termed "oncogenes".

Answer 120

Examples of viruses associated with cancer are: papillomavirus-cervical cancer, hepatitis virus-liver cancer, Epstein-Barr virus-Burkitt's lymphoma.

Answer 121

-Examples of blood tests used to diagnose cancer include: Complete blood count (CBC). This common blood test measures the amount of various types of blood cells in a sample of your blood. ... Blood protein testing. ... Tumor marker tests. ... Circulating tumor cell tests. -Examples of the types of laboratory tests we use include: CTC test. Cellsearch™ circulating tumor cell (CTC) tests may be used to monitor metastatic breast, colorectal and prostate cancers. ... Complete blood count test. ... Flow cytometry. ... Mammaprint + Blueprint® test. ... Oncotype DX® test. ... CA-125 test. ... Prostate-specific antigen test.

Answer 122

Examples of some common cancer screening tests that are known to lower cancer death rates include colonoscopy for colon cancer, mammography for breast cancer, and Pap smear for cervical cancer.

Answer 123

The spread of cancer cells from the place where they first formed to another part of the body. In metastasis, cancer cells break away from the original (primary) tumor, travel through the blood or lymph system, and form a new tumor in other organs or tissues of the body.

Answer 124

Grading systems differ depending on the type of cancer. In general, tumors are graded as 1, 2, 3, or 4, depending on the amount of abnormality. In Grade 1 tumors, the tumor cells and the organization of the tumor tissue appear close to normal. These tumors tend to grow and spread slowly.

Answer 125

A growing tumor becomes a lump of cancer cells that can destroy the normal cells around the tumor and damage the body's healthy tissues.

Answer 126

without symptoms

Answer 127

an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage

Answer 128

a condition of physical wasting away due to the loss of weight and muscle mass that occurs in patients with diseases such as advanced cancer or AIDS

Answer 129

disease, malnutrition, stress, extremes of ages, immunosuppressive drugs

Answer 130

contributes to anemia, leukopenia, and thrombocytopenia -due to invasion and destruction of bone marrow cells, poor nutrition, and chemotherapy

Answer 131

So 'leukopenia' literally means a deficiency of white cells. Since we know that white cells are the soldiers of the body that protect against infections, having a low number of white blood cells can leave a person vulnerable to infection.

Answer 132

Your platelet count may be low if the body is not making enough platelets, losing platelets, or platelets are being destroyed. In patients with cancer, low platelet count may be caused by: Certain types of cancer: patients with lymphomas or leukemias may be at higher risk for low platelet counts.

Answer 133

Why you can die from anemia. Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout your body. When you don't have enough red blood cells, your organs don't get enough oxygen and can't work properly. This can have severe consequences.

Answer 134

infections seen in patients with compromised immune systems

Answer 135

Chemotherapy can cause fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, bowel issues such as constipation or diarrhoea, hair loss, mouth sores, skin and nail problems. You may have trouble concentrating or remembering things. There can also be nerve and muscle effects and hearing changes.

Answer 136

- Chemotherapy is most effective at killing cells that are rapidly dividing. - Unfortunately, chemotherapy does not know the difference between cancer cells and the normal cells. The "normal" cells will grow back and be healthy but in the meantime, side effects occur. -Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body. Cancer develops when the body's normal control mechanism stops working. Old cells do not die and instead grow out of control, forming new, abnormal cells. These extra cellsmay form a mass of tissue, called a tumor.

Answer 137

1. Change in bowel or bladder habits. 2. A sore that does not heal. 3. Unusual bleeding or discharge. 4. Thickening or lump in the breast or elsewhere. Indigestion or difficulty in swallowing. Obvious change in a wart or mole. Nagging cough or hoarseness.

Answer 138

§ Moles: melanocytes § Lipomas: adipose tissue § Vascular tumors (hemangiomas): blood vessels § Neuromas: nerves - Malignant § Kaposi sarcoma: metastasizing, opportunistic Ø Cancer - Most skin cancers are slow - Light skin over 60 yrs. highest risk - High altitude & low latitude living is a risk factor - Need biopsy to diagnosis: § Mole changes § Large, change colors, ulcerate, bleed

Answer 139

Ø May be malignant or benign Ø Benign tumors often go undiagnosed because there is no pain Ø Malignant tumors are called sarcomas Ø Most bone tumors are secondary to metastasis from another site most commonly from: - Breast - Prostate - Lung - Kidney

Answer 140

This is a chronic disease that occurs when stomach acid or bile flows into the food pipe and irritates the lining. Acid reflux and heartburn more than twice a week may indicate GERD. Symptoms include burning pain in the chest that usually occurs after eating and worsens when lying down. Relief from lifestyle changes and over-the-counter medications is usually temporary. Stronger medication may be needed.

Answer 141

incompetent lower esophageal sphincter, frequent acid reflux

Answer 142

The pathogenesis of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is complex and involves changes in reflux exposure, epithelial resistance, and visceral sensitivity. The gastric refluxate is a noxious material that injures the esophagus and elicits symptoms.

Answer 143

A burning sensation in your chest (heartburn), usually after eating, which might be worse at night. Chest pain. Difficulty swallowing. Regurgitation of food or sour liquid. Sensation of a lump in your throat.

Answer 144

-Adult onset asthma. -Esophagitis (Inflammation, irritation, or swelling of the esophagus) -Stricture (Narrowing of the esophagus) -Barrett's Esophagus (Pre-cancerous changes to the esophagus) -Regurgitation of acid into the lungs. Sinusitis.

Answer 145

Prescription-strength proton pump inhibitors. Proton Pump Inhibitors (PPIs) for Heartburn and Reflux Dexlansoprazole (Dexilant) Esomeprazole (Nexium) Lansoprazole (Prevacid) Omeprazole (Prilosec, Zegerid) Pantoprazole (Protonix) Rabeprazole (Aciphex)

Answer 146

equilibrium between acid and base concentrations in the body fluids ......

Answer 147

A numerical measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution, usually measured on a scale of 0 to 14. Neutral solutions (such as pure water) have a pHof 7, acidic solutions have a pH lower than 7, and alkaline solutions have a pHhigher than 7.

Answer 148

The amount of hydrogen ion present in a water solution is used as a measure of the acidity of a substance; the higher the concentration of hydrogen ion the more acidic the solution and the lower the pH.

Answer 149

Cellular metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms in order to maintain life. Cellular metabolism involves complex sequences of controlled biochemical reactions, better known as metabolicpathways.

Answer 150

Lung function, transport of CO2 and acid-base balance By varying the rate at which carbon dioxide is excreted, the lungs regulate the carbon dioxide content of blood.

Answer 151

Respiratory failure is a serious condition that develops when the lungs can't get enough oxygen into the blood. Buildup of carbon dioxide can also damage the tissues and organs and further impair oxygenation of blood and, as a result, slow oxygen delivery to the tissues.

Answer 152

A low CO2 level can be a sign of several conditions, including: Kidney disease. Diabetic ketoacidosis, which happens when your body's blood acid level goes up because it doesn't have enough insulin to digest sugars. Metabolic acidosis, which means your body makes too much acid.

Answer 153

The kidneys help maintain the acid-base balance by excreting hydrogen ions into the urine and reabsorbing bicarbonate from the urine.

Answer 154

Acid excretion by kidneys. One of the ways (there are several) by which the kidney excretes acid (and conserves sodium) is through generation of ammonia (and ammonium) from glutamine in the proximal convoluted tubules (and to a lesser extent absorption of ammonia from blood in the distal tubules).

Answer 155

The kidneys help maintain the acid-base balance by excreting hydrogen ions into the urine and reabsorbing bicarbonate from the urine.

Answer 156

Glomerular filtration rate is the best overall indicator of kidney function. It is superior to the serum creatinine level, which varies with age, sex, and race and often does not reflect kidney function accurately.

Answer 157

kidney function, defined by the rate at which blood is filtered through the kidneys

Answer 158

The kidney and urinary systems help the body to eliminate liquid waste called urea, and to keep chemicals, such as potassium and sodium, and water in balance.

Answer 159

Nephron, functional unit of the kidney, the structure that actually produces urine in the process of removing waste and excess substances from the blood. There are about 1,000,000 nephrons in each human kidney.

Answer 160

filtration, reabsorption, secretion

Answer 161

A nephron is the basic unit of structure in the kidney. A nephron is used separate to water, ions and small molecules from the blood, filter out wastes and toxins, and return needed molecules to the blood. ... The glomerulus is the specialized configuration of capillaries within the nephron that make kidneys possible.

Answer 162

A GFR of 60 or higher is in the normal range. A GFR below 60 may mean kidney disease. A GFR of 15 or lower may mean kidney failure.

Answer 163

section of the nephron tubule that conserves water and minimizes the volume of urine

Answer 164

the structure in the nephron that collects urine from the distal convoluted tubule

Answer 165

first section of the renal tubule that the blood flows through; reabsorption of water, ions, and all organic nutrients

Answer 166

Between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct; Selective reabsorption and secretion occur here, most notably to regulate reabsorption of water and sodium

Answer 167

prostaglandins

Answer 168

a. Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) b. Creatinine C. Urinalysis

Answer 169

Costovertebral angle tenderness suggests nephrolithiasis, ureteropelvic junction obstruction, or pyelonephritis.

Answer 170

decrease in excretion of wastes results from impaired filtration function

Answer 171

Decreased urine output, although occasionally urine output remains normal. Fluid retention, causing swelling in your legs, ankles or feet. Shortness of breath. Fatigue. Confusion. Nausea. Weakness. Irregular heartbeat.

Answer 172

lack of blood flow, blockage, hemorrhage, various poisons

Answer 173

Anti-hypertensives (blood pressure tablets) You might need anti-hypertensive tablets to lower your blood pressure. ... Diuretics (water tablets) ... Erythropoietin (EPO) ... Hepatitis B vaccination. ... Iron supplements. ... Phosphate binders. ... Sodium Bicarbonate. ... Statins (cholesterol tablets)

Answer 174

inflammation of the pancreas

Answer 175

* Abdominal pain present in the mid-epigastric or LUQ * Pain is more severe when lying down and may radiate to the back or flank area * Abdominal tenderness with decreased or absent bowel sounds * Nausea and vomiting * May have symptoms of shock: due to panceratic hemorrhage * Bulky, pale foul smelling stools (steatorrhea) * Hypocalcemia due to fixation of calcium in area of fat necrosis

Answer 176

1. Biliary tract disease 2. Alcohol abuse 3. Infections 4. Hypercalcemia 5. drugs

Answer 177

-Anticholinergics (dicylclomine (Bentyl): decrease intestinal motility and the flow of pancreatic enzymes -Pain control: Dilaudid -Prophylactic antibiotics, antiemetics -H2 receptor antagonists or proton pump inhibitors: to suppress gastric acid and decrease pancreatic activity -Spasmolytics (papaverine (Pavabid) relax smooth muscle -Pancreatic enzymes (pancrelipase (Viokase): aid with digestion of fats and proteins when taken with meals and snacks

Answer 178

Currently, no medications are used to treat acute pancreatitis specifically. Therapy is primarily supportive and involves intravenous (IV) fluid hydration, analgesics, antibiotics (in severe pancreatitis), and treatment of metabolic complications (eg, hyperglycemia and hypocalcemia).

Answer 179

The inflammatory response is a defense mechanism that evolved in higher organisms to protect them from infection and injury. Its purpose is to localize and eliminate the injurious agent and to remove damaged tissue components so that the body can begin to heal.

Answer 180

In the case of inflammation, there are five cardinal signs that characterize the condition: pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. Interestingly, inflammation is a biological process that your body uses in response to infection.

Answer 181

Some examples of acute inflammation are the common cold, the flu, bronchitis, headache, hives, or joint pain. On the other hand, chronic inflammation lasts for several months to years. It occurs from chronic exposure to a low-intensity irritant or toxin. It may also be an autoimmune response to an allergen.

Answer 182

Acute -swelling stage. Sub-acute - regenerative stage. Chronic - scar tissue maturation and remodelling stage.

Answer 183

Chemicals produced by the body and responsible for inflammation and pain

Answer 184

Chemical stored in mast cells that triggers dilation and increased permeability of capillaries.

Answer 185

Chemicals released by the immune system communicate with the brain.

Answer 186

Modified fatty acids that are produced by a wide range of cells.

Answer 187

Membrane that lines a cavity without an opening to the outside of the body

Answer 188

pertaining to blood

Answer 189

pertaining to fibers

Answer 190

producing or containing pus

Answer 191

fever, leukocytosis, lymphadenopathy, elevated C-reactive protein

Answer 192

Beyond the stem cell, three other types of cells are critical to the process of tissuerepair: fibroblasts, endothelial cells and macrophages. In most wounds, complete replacement of wounded tissue to its original, unharmed state is impossible.

Answer 193

Never go to G0, divide rapidly w/ a short G1 (e.g., Bone marrow, gut epithelium, skin, hair follicles)

Answer 194

Cells that do not regularly undergo mitosis but are able to if the need arises

Answer 195

cannot replicate; cardiac/striated muscle; neurons

Answer 196

Repair by connective tissue involves the influx of debris-removing inflammatory cells, formation of granulation tissue (a substance consisting of fibroblasts and delicate capillaries in a loose extracellular matrix) and conversion of said granulation tissue into fibrous tissue that is remodeled over time to form a scar ...

Answer 197

Wound healing can be delayed by factors local to the wound itself, including desiccation, infection or abnormal bacterial presence, maceration, necrosis, pressure, trauma, and edema.

Answer 198

the role of inflammation in increasing blood flow to the site of an injury

Answer 199

Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress. Also known as adrenaline.

Answer 200

stimulates cellular metabolism

Answer 201

There are three clearly distinguishable phases: the period of the fever's onset, the initial rise (this period is fully established when the fever reaches its height), and the end phase (which is characterized by the fall of the body's temperature).

Answer 202

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

Answer 203

A type of white blood cell that engulfs invading microbes and contributes to the nonspecific defenses of the body against disease.

Answer 204

a white blood cell containing granules that are readily stained by eosin.

Answer 205

A circulating leukocyte that produces histamine.

Answer 206

Cells that release chemicals (such as histamine) that promote inflammation.

Answer 207

An agranular leukocyte that is able to migrate into tissues and transform into a macrophage.

Answer 208

phagocytize foreign substances and help activate T cells

Answer 209

specialized white blood cells that patrol the body searching for antigens that produce infections

Answer 210

responsible for immune surveillance

Answer 211

Cells created in the thymus that produce substances that attack infected cells in the body.

Answer 212

Cells manufactured in the bone marrow that create antibodies for isolating and destroying invading bacteria and viruses.

Answer 213

Immunity that is present before exposure and effective from birth. Responds to a broad range of pathogens.

Answer 214

the ability to recognize and remember specific antigens and mount an attack on them

Answer 215

the short-term immunity that results from the introduction of antibodies from another person or animal.

Answer 216

-most abundant -crosses placenta -secondary immune response

Answer 217

first antibody produced

Answer 218

In secretions Tears Saliva and mucous membranes Colostrum

Answer 219

Attached to B cells Activates B cells

Answer 220

allergic reactions

Answer 221

anaphylactic shock (hay fever, asthma, food allergies)

Answer 222

Cytotoxic ANTIBODY mediated cell destruction Ex: Autoimmune hemolytic anemia

Answer 223

Immune Complexes of Antigen and Antibody Ex: Serum sickness

Answer 224

Delayed type hypersensitivity reactions. T-cell and Macrophage mediated. Ex: Tuberculosis

Answer 225

any of a large group of diseases characterized by a condition in which the immune system produces antibodies against its own tissues

Answer 226

Preformed IgG antibodies against graft

Answer 227

Organ dysfunction - INCREASED GGT in the liver or CR depending on organ w/ in 5 days - 3months

Answer 228

T-lymphocytes - need new transplant

Answer 229

Etiology. Primary immunodeficiency diseases result from intrinsic defects in immune cells, including T cells, complement components, and phagocytes. Recurrent pneumonia caused by extracellular bacteria suggests antibodydeficiency.

Answer 230

Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) is a group of rare disorderscaused by mutations in different genes involved in the development and function of infection-fighting immune cells. Infants with SCID appear healthy at birth but are highly susceptible to severe infections.

Answer 231

. Humoral immune deficiencies are conditions which cause impairment of humoral immunity, which can lead to immunodeficiency.

Answer 232

Retrovirus - carries genetic information in RNA instead of DNA HIV attaches to CD4+ (T helpers) HIV RNA enters the cells and converts its RNA to DNA in the cell, therefore the body's cells begin producing the virus This process kills the CD4+ cells and releases more HIV

Answer 233

Pneumocystis jiroveci (formerly carinii) pneumonia

Answer 234

protein particles that cause disease

Answer 235

Pieces of genetic material surrounded by a protein coat

Answer 236

(microbiology) single-celled or noncellular spherical or spiral or rod-shaped organisms lacking chlorophyll that reproduce by fission

Answer 237

spiral-shaped bacteria that have flexible walls and are capable of movement

Answer 238

no cell wall

Answer 239

a small bacterium that lives in lice, fleas, ticks, and mites

Answer 240

Azithromycin (Zithromax)

Answer 241

An organism that absorbs nutrients from the environment.

Answer 242

An organism that feeds on a living host

Answer 243

the incubation, prodromal, illness, decline, and convalescence periods

Answer 244

Infectious diseases are the leading cause of global morbidity and mortality [2]. The "big 3" pathogens—HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria—cause hundreds of millions of infections annually and collectively kill more than 5 million people each year, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia.

Answer 245

A condition in which the circulatory system fails to provide sufficient circulation to enable every body part to perform its function; also called hypoperfusion.

Answer 246

-Pale -Moist -Cool Skin -Shallow Irregular Breathing -Dilated Pupils -Weak or rapid pulse -Dizziness or nausea

Answer 247

The first phase of the alarm reaction, during which epinephrine and cortisone are released and the body prepares itself for flight or fight.

Answer 248

Identified by underlying causes: Cardiogenic Shock Hemorrhagic Shock Hypovolemic Shock Obstructive Shock Distributive (vasogenic) Shock - (3) types Anaphylactic Shock Neurogenic Shock Septic Shock