Final Exam Flashcards
Graves’ disease
Autoimmune disorder involving the formation of auto antibodies that mimic TSH. The antibodies bind to TSH receptors on the follicular cells of the thyroid, causing an abnormally high level of TH release. Same symptoms as hyperthyroidism(>metabolism,weight loss, hyperactivity, heat intolerance) plus bulging eyes known as exophthalmos. Treated by removing thyroid or radioactive iodine injections
Cushing syndrome
Abnormal pattern of adrenal cortical function
Results from the chronic exposure of the bodies tissue to excessive levels of glucocoticoid hormones. This complex of symptoms is seen most frequently in people taking corticosteroids as therapy for autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, although some cases result when the adrenal gland produces too much of its own glycocorticoid hormones
Characterized by obesity(face, moon face) buffalo hump, hypertension, hirsuitism(male pattern hair growth) kidney stones, menstrual irregularities
DM1
Insulin dependent “juvenile diabetes”
Absent or diminished production and release of insulin by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets
Not directly associated with obesity
Genetic predisposition +trigger(viral infection)
Treated with insulin injections(stem cells)
Functions of blood
Gas exchange(o2,co2),
transport
nutrients and priducts of metabolism
Enzymes
Hormones
Buffers to regulate pH
Regulate temp
Regulate fluid balance
Protect against infection(luekocytes, plasma protiens)
Protect against blood loss(clotting via platelets,plasma protuens)
Review fig 18.12
3 phases of hemostasis(stop the bleed)
Hemostasis: stoppage of bleeding, 3 phases, vascular spasm, platelet plug, coagulation
Fig 19.22 heart anatomy &ecg
Table 20.2 types of capilaries
Continuous, fenestrated, sinusoidal
Pic on phone
Compare/contrast anatomy of blood and lymphatic capillaries
Sim: wall composed of endothelium
Diff:
LC larger in diameter, no basement membrane, overlapping endothelial cells act as one way flaps to allow fluid in but not out
LC are close ended, BC form a loop
Function of thymus
Primary lymphoid structure
Belobed, superior mediastinum
Functions in t-lymphocyte maturation, secrete thymulin
When idms thymus at maximum size
Puberty(30-50g)
Description of continuous capillaries
Complete endothelial lining around lumen
Complete basement membrane
Entercellular clefts between endothelial cells
What materials pass through continuous capilaries
Plasma and it’s contents(-most proteins)
Some leukocytes
Locations of continuous capillaries
Most capillaries
Muscle, thymus,brain,spine,skin,lungs
Description of fenestrated capillaries
Same as continuous +fenestrations
What passes through fenestrated capillaries
Large amounts of materials are filtered,released, or absorbed
Some smaller proteins
Locations of fenestrated capillaries
Small intestine(absorp nutrients)
Ciliary process to produce aqueous humor in eyes
Description of sinusoidal capillary
Incomplete lining of endothelial cells around lumen
Incomplete or absent basement membrane
What passes through sinusoidal capillaries
Large substances(formed elements, large plasma proteins)
Plasma
Locations of sinusoidal capillaries
Red bone marrow for formed elements to enter blood
Liver for monitoring blood contents(for potentially harmful substances)
Where does activation of lymphocytes occur
Secondary lymphoid structures usually lymph nodes or spleen
Activation of lymphocytes occurs in
Secondary lymphoid structures, usually lymph nodes or spleen
Lymphocytes activation results in
Proliferation and differentiation to form a clone of identical cells that includes memory cells
Antigen challenge
First encounter between antigen and lymphocyte
What do b lymphocytes mostly become on activation
Differentiate into plasma cells that produce antibodies
Structural organization of respiratory tract includes
Upper:nose, nasal cavity, pharynx,larynx
Lower:trachea, lungs, bronchus, bronchiole, terminal bronchiole
Functional organization of respiratory tract
Conducting zone:nose, nasal cavity, pharyngitis, larynx,trachea, lungs, bronchus, bronchiole, terminal bronchiole
Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchiole, alveolar duct, alveoli
Conducting zone
Passageways that transport or conduct air
Think train track for air
Respiratory zone
Structures that participate in gas exchange with blood
Hormones that increase Na+ reabsorption
Aldasterone, cortisol, estrogen,GH, TH, insulin
Hormones that decrease Na+ reabsorption
Atrial natriuretic peptide, progesterone, PTH, glucagon
Obligatory water reabsorption occurs where
Proximal convoluted tubule, ~65%
How much water is reabsorbed in the nephron loop
~10%
What/where regulates the amount of water excreted in urine
Collecting tubules and collecting ducts in response to ADH binding
How does ADH Regulate the amount of water excreted in urine
ADH causes an increase in aquaporins resulting in an increase in water reabsorption
Fig 24.20
What hormone regulates the reabsorption of calcium and phosphate ions
PTH inhibits reabsorption of PO⁴³‐, and stimulates Ca²+ reabsorption
Fig 24.22
What are the two major fluid compartments in the body
Intracellular and extracellular fluid comoartments
What is intracellular fluid
Fluid within cells
How much body fluid is intracellular
⅔
What is extracellular fluid
Fluid outside of cells
Hiw much fluid is extracellular
⅓
What is interstitial fluid
Fluid directly surrounding cells, one third of extracellular fluid
Hiw much extracellular fluid is plasma
⅓ of extracellular fluid
What salutes are more common in intracellular fluid
K+, Mg²+, PO, and proteins
Common salutes in extracellular fluid
Na+ and Cl-, HCO³-,
What enzyme breaks down carbs in small intestine
Pancreatic amylase
Where ins pancreatic amylase produced and rekeased
Produced and released by pancreas into the small intestine
What enzymes break down nucleic acids
Deoxyribonuclease(DNA)
ribonucleae(RNA)
synthesized and released by pancreas
Break phosohodiester bond between nucleotides
Product is nucleotides(deoxyribonucleotide, ribonucleotide)
What enzymes break down nucleotides
Phospatase and nucleosidase
What are essential nutrients
Must be obtained through diet and absorbed through digestion
What is Nonessential nutrients
Adequately provided by biochemical processes within the body so they don’t need to be included in diet
What is a macronutrients
Nutrients that must be consumed in large amounts carbs lipids protein
What is a micronutrients
Vitamins and minerals that must be consumed in small amounts
What is cellulose
Carbohydrate from plants that cannot be absorbed by humans
Fiber, polysaccharide
Vegetables, lentils, peas, beans,whole grains,oats,berries,nuts
Cholesterol
Lipid
Needed to create steroid hormones(testosterone) and bile salts, VitD
Required component of plasma membrane
Made available from diet or synthesized in liver
Disaccharide
Carbohydrate that is a dimer formed from two monosaccharides
Sucrose, lactose, maltose
Glucose
Monosaccharide
One of the primary nutrients supplying energy to cells
Sugar and starch usually converted to glucose
Lactose
“Milk sugar”
Dissacharide
Monosacharide
Simplest carb molecule
Glucose, ribose
Polysaccharides
Formed from chains of monosaccharides
Glycogen
Starches
Starch
Polysaccharides polymer of glucose molecules
“Complex carbs”
Potato, bread, pasta
Sucrose
Disaccharide
Table sugar, maple syrup, fruit
Sugar
Carb including monisacharides and disaccharides
Triglycerides
Fats
Composed of glycerol and fatty acids
Are most amino acids essential or nonessential
Nonessential
9 of 20 are essential
Sources of cholesterol
Animal products
Functions of cholesterol
Required component of plasma membrane
Precursor molecule of steroid hormones, bile salts, VitD
Water soluble vitamins
Dissolve in water
B complex
VitC
Fat soluble vitamins
Dissolve in fat
A D E K
Meiosis
Type of cell devision that results in gametes
When does crossing over occur
Prophase 1
Is there crossing over in prophase 2
No
What is crossing over
The homologous chromosomes within each tetrad exchange genetic material. Shuffling of genetic material between maternal and paternal sister chromatids. Ensures genetic diversity
Are sister chromatids in replicated chromosomes identical after crossing over occurs
No
What is the result of meiosis 1
Two new cells, each containing 23 replicated chromosomes only. Still composed of sister chromatids
What is the result of meiosis 2
Four new daughter cells contain 23 single chromosomes only
Difference between meiosis and mitosis
Meiosis is gamete(23 chromosomes)
Mitosis is all other body cells(46 chromosomes)
Both have all 4 steps
Mitosis daughter cells are genetically identical
Meiosis daughter cells different
Mitosis is one phase
Meiosis is 2
Total chromosomes in a diploid cell
46
When does Ovulation occur
Occurs on day 14 of 28 day ovarian cycle
Ovulation
The release of the secondary oocyte from a mature follicle
How many ovary ovulate per month typically
One
Uterine cycle
Cyclical changes in the endometrial lining of the uterus. Influenced by estrogen and progesterone secreted by the developing follicles and Corpus luteum
Phases of uterine cycle
Menstrual phase
Proliferative
Secretory
Function of Corpus luteum
Secretes large amounts of progesterone, estrogen, and inhibit. Inhibits hypothalamus and anterior pituitary and builds uterine lining
Menstrual phase
Days 1-5
Sloughing of functional layer of endometrium
Lasts through period of bleeding
Proliferative phase
Days 6-14
Initial development of new functional layer
Overlaps the time of follicle growth and estrogen secretion by ovary
Secretory phase
Days 15-28
Increased vascularization and development of the uterine glands occurs primarily in response to progesterone secretion by corpus luteum
Describe the fluid secreted by seminal vesicles
Slightly alkaline
Viscous, whitish-yellow
Contains fructose and prostaglandin
Fructose nourishes sperm
Prostaglandin dilates the external os of cervix
Describe the fluid secreted by prostate
Slightly milky fluid that is slightly acidic, and citric acid, seminalplasmin, prostate specific antigen
Citric acid is a nutrient for sperm
Sperminaplasmin is antibiotic that prevents UTI
PSA liquefy seven after ejaculation
Fluid secreted by bulbourethral gland
Clear viscous mucin that forms mucus, coats and lubricates urethra during intercourse
Causative agent of chlamydia
Bacterium chlamydia trachomatis
Causative agent of genital herpes
Herpes simplex virus type 1 or 2
Causative agent of gonorrhea
Bacterium neisseria gonorrheae
Causative agent of syphilis
Corkscrew shaped bacterium treponema pallidum
Leading cause of PID for women
STI
How is the temperature of the testes regulated
When exposed to elevated Temps the dartos and cremaster muscle relaxes which allows testes to move away from the body
Opposite for cold
What type of nerves innervate the testes
Parasympathetic
What stimulates an erection
Blood enters the erectile bodies and fills the venous spaces.
Rigid erectile bodies compress vein leading away
Parasympathetic innervation releases nitric oxide into tissues which is a vasodilator
What secretes human chorionic gonadotropin and what is its function
Syncytiotrophoblast
hCG signals Corpus luteum that fertilization has occurred
What chemical do pregnancy tests detect
hCG
