Final Exam Flashcards
Who is this, what is their nationality, what years was he alive
Imhotep
2655-2600 BCE) First dynasty of the old kingdom; Near beginning of the bronze age (Egypt)
What is the significance of Imhotep (what was his contributions, what was he known for?)
- He was also a high priest, astrologist. Served under the pharaoh Djoser
- He was the architect of Djoser’s step pyramid in Saqqara
Potentially author of Edwin smith papyrus
Osler said he was the “real father of medicine” (not Hippocrates) and he was “the first figure of a physician to stand out clearly from the mist of antiquity.” However there is NO DIRECT EVIDENCE that he was a physician - Writings were ‘devoid of magical thinking ‘
- His influence was so strong he was deified 2,000 years later (god of healing)
Many parallels to asklepios and healing cults in ancient Greece (what are the parallels? ) - His tomb has never been found
- His name means “those who come in peace”
Who was the father of Imhotep
Ptah- God of creation and fertility
What happened at the healing temples Imhotep was associated with
He is associated with healing rituals and temple sleep - patients would sleep overnight in his temples with the expectation to be visited by gods in order to be cured
What does SWNW mean; what association does this have with Imhotep
Egyptian word for physician
this word was never used with imhotep’s name
Who is this and what is their significance
Hesy-Ra
- - Considered to be the first true physician
- Lived at the same time as Imhotep
- Titles include: “Great one of the dentists”
- We know so much about him because his tomb was discovered in Saqqara
Is Hesy-Ra or Imhotep the first named physician in history?
Hesy-Ra was considered the first true physician
Who is this, when were they are alive, what is significant about them
Merit Ptah, 2700 BC, Egypt
- First women mentioned in the study of science
- Inscription on tomb was “Chief Physician” so she would have been a teacher and supervisor of males. She would have attended to the king
Know the controversy about Peseshet and Merit-Ptah. Which one of these is likely fictional?
Pesehet was likely the actual first female physician. Merit-Ptah was likely a fictional character based on Pesehet accidentally created through a mix up in stories throughout history.
Who is this and what is their significance
peseshet
- 2500 BCE “lady overseer of female physicians” and “kings associate”
- Unclear as to if she was best known as a practicing physician of a teacher suggests she was the personal physician of the monarch
- Associated with the training of midwives, one of the few references to such training in Egyptian history.
- Inscriptions made it clear that there were other female physicians practicing at the whom she supervised and trained
Understand continuity between ancient Egyptian medicine and later Greek medicine
Who is this and when did he live? What is he the “father of”?
Herodotus
- Greek historian nicknamed the Father of History
- Described Egypt as “a country filled with doctors,” because there were so many specialists.
- Greek physicians: their skills of diagnosis and surgery won them a good reputation and many came to live in Greece and Rome as those empires evolved
- Greek tourist who wrote travelogues, he did not think of himself as a historian
- Excerpts of his writing?
Egyptian perspective of disease
- Mummified bodies provide direct evidence for ailments and their treatments
- eye diseases, rheumatoid arthritits, bladder stones, kidney stones and gallststones, bilharzia, arterial disease, gout and appendicitis
- tree bark splints on a 5,000 year old mummified arm - show fractures were splinted. Most bone fractures found archeologically are healed suggesting good medical care
what is the theory of channels
- heart is at the center of the system and believed to be the source of life
- system is composed of 46 tubes/channels
- disease was thought to be due to absorption from the intestine of harmful substances that lead to the purification of blood
- Treatment: carthatics, enema, bloodletting and laxatives to “unblock the the channels”
- Also called “the nile theory”
- Heart was considered the “seat of the mind” by the ancient Egyptians and was not removed during the embalming process
What is referred to as the “speech of the heart”
pulse
Where did Egyptian surgeons never operate
- Egyptian surgeons never opened the abdomen
- They performed external operations like lancing or circumcision. They also dealt with treating wounds and fractures
- Equipment used included scalpels, knives forceps, and probes. Also used red hot irons to cauterize wounds
Specializations among Egyptian medicine
- Ranks: inspector of doctors, overseers and chief doctor showing hierarchy among physicians
- Specializations like ophthalmologists, gastroenterologists, proctologists, dentists, and others
- Physicians did NOT embalm mummies
What is considered the center of the system
The heart is the center of the system it was thought to be the source of life
features of Eber Papyrus
- Dates to 1550 BCE
- Discovered in a tomb around 1860
- Purchased at Luxor in 1873, by Geroge Ebers, a German Egyptologist
- Now housed in University of Leipzig, Germany
- Compendium of herbal knowledge with over 800 remedies and 500 ingredients used in various medications
Examples of remedies: - Birth control – smear a paste of dates, acacia, and honey to wool and apply
- Diabetes mellitus – drink a mixture of lots of plants and milk
- Guinea-worm disease: Wrap the emerging end of the worm around a stick and slowly pull it out- this is still the standard treatment in modern day medicine
- Asthma: mixture of herbs heated on brick to inhale the fumes
- Medicinal clay used for eye complaints
- Yellow ochre used for urological complaints
Edwin Smith Papyrus
- Dated to 1600 BCE but words suggest it was copied from work around 2500 BCE (during building of pyramids)
- Edwin smith (American Egyptologist) bought it in 1862 in Luxor
- Describes treatment of traumatic injuries
- 48 surgical cases, detailing observations of the head, nose, face, ears, neck, chest, and spine, describing examinations leading to surgery
- Currently in metropolitan museum of art in NYC
- Rational and scientific approach with no magic, although there are incantations for the physician:
- An ailment which I will treat
- An ailment with which I will contend
- An ailment not be treated
Kahun Gynecologic Papyrus
- 1800 BCE
- 3 pages containing material about diseases of women and pregnancy
- Treatments are nonsurgical (such as fumigation)
pregnancy test: pouring woman’s urine on barley and emmer: if it grew she was pregnant - Pessaries for contraception or prolapsed uterus
The Library of Alexandria, its story and significance, who founded it, when it was founded, who studied there? Know everything in the video about the Library of Alexandria
What is the Pharos and why was it important
Key contributions of Egyptian medicine
- Enjoyed great fame in antiquity
- First to use and record advanced medical practices
- Physicians were trained
- Used both natural and supernatural treatments
- Specialized and had a hierarchy among phycsians
- Knowledge of the body: knew the main organs but not their purpose
- Aware of connection between the pulse and the heart BUT did not know about the system of circulation
- Developed natural theory of the channels where a blocked channel meants disease- goal was to clear the channel as medical treatment
- Hygiene: washed twice a day, basic toilets with drainage system
- Dominant role in history of ancient medicine for 2500 years, then replaced by greeks
definition of presentism
uncritical adherence to present-day attitudes, especially the tendency to interpret past events in terms of modern values and concepts
What is whiggism
a version of history that presents that past as the inexorable march or progress towards enlightenment. Critically in reference to a history of science that focuses on “heroes” and the successful chain of theories and experiments the led to present-day science. It ignores failed theory and dead end. Puts its faith in the power of human reason to reshape society for the better, regardless of past history and tradition.
What are zoonotic infections
diseases/viruses that are spread to humans from animals
What is trepanation
drilling a hole in the skull for medical treatment purposes
what does Sunu mean
usual term for doctor
What does “Primum non nocere” mean
“first do no harm” stated in hippocrates corpus
Who is this and what are they known for
Apollo
Olympian god of prophecy, and oracles, healing, disease, and plague, song/poetry, and archery.
Typically depicted with a wreath and branch of laurel; bow and quiver; raven; and lyre.
Who is this, what are they known for, where and when did they live
Aesclepius
- 8th century BCE
- Was likely an actual historical figure, known for his healing abilities (parallel to Imhotep). Mentioned with his sons in the Iliad in the 8th BCE and were not gods (yet… late became deified)
- Recognizable by staff with single snake
Who was the father of Aesclepius
Apollo was his father, mortal woman named Coronis was his mother
What does Aesclepius name mean and what is the story behind it
he received the name Asklepios, “to cut open”
2 possible stories behind the name:
1. His mother was killed for being unfaithful to Apollo and was laid out on a funeral pyre to be consumed, but the unborn
child was rescued from her womb
2. his mother died in labor and was laid out
on the pyre to be consumed, but his father rescued the child, cutting him from her womb.
What is the significance of snakes and how Aesclepius was raised
He was raised chiron/centar and instructed in the art of medicine (from Chiron) - snake licked his ears clean and taught him secret knowledge. Snakes are considered sacred beings of wisdom, healing, and resurrection (shed their skin and kind or Reborn)
- Asclepius bore a rod wreathed with a snake, which became associated with healing
What do snakes represent and why
- Snakes are considered sacred beings of wisdom, healing, and resurrection (shed their skin and kind or Reborn)
- snakes in the healing temples too
Difference between staff of Hermes and Rod of Aesclepius. Significance of each
Staff of Hermes:
- has 2 snakes around the rod - messenger of the God’s
Rod of Aesclepius
- Rod of Asclepius has one snake and signals healing
- symbol still associated and recognized with medical practice today
who is this
Chiron, master of medicine
taught and raised aesclepius
half horse half human
What are the features of Aesclepian medicine and greek healing temples
- Temples were sites of pilgrimage where prayers, sacrifices, monetary gifts were offered. Usually on beautiful hills with fresh breezes. Women who were about to give birth could not enter because it was too dangerous and the temples were not a place of death, they were for a place of healing.
- Healing ceremonies in temples in which a healing dream was hoped for - they would go to sleep and pray for a healing dream the priests will interpret them to find your cure/treatment
- Temples used a type of non-venomous snake in healing rituals, that slithered around freely on the floor among the sick and injured (aesculpian snake)
- Aesclapian temples and Hippocratic physicians were practicing at the same time (parallel to modern medicine and naturopathic medicine today)
importance of greek medicine
foundation of evidence based medicine
who is this and what is their significance
Hygeia
Daughter of Aesclepius
Goddess of good health,
cleanliness, and sanitation
Who is this and what is their significance
Panacea
Daughter of Aesclepius
goddess of universal health
In what great work of literature was the first mention of Aesclepius?
First mention of aesclepius was in the Iliad by Homer in book one: The Rage of Achilles
What are the four humors. What is each ones associations (organs, temperaments, & seasons)
- Blood—heart or liver; spring and air; sanguine
- Black bile—spleen; autumn and earth; melancholic
- Yellow bile—liver or gallbladder; summer and fire; choleretic
- Phlegm—brain or lungs; winter and water; phlegmatic
What is the observation of black bile thought to have come from?
Who wrote the Hippocratic Corpus
- Large body of writings, over about 200 years (Hippocrates did not write most (if any of these)
- Compiled by students of Hippocrates and physicians who trained in the Hippocratic school
Who is this, what years were they alive and where did they live?
Hippocrates (460-370 BCE)
- He is from Greece, but today it is modern day Turkey
- Born on Island of Cos near the western coast of Asia Minor (Turkey)
- Traditionally taught under a famous tree. Paul from the Bible was also said to teach under this tree
- “Father of Medicine”
- Was taught medicine by his father (Heraclides) and his grandfather
- Travelled and practiced as a roving physician
- Lectured and taught and was paid fees by patients and students
- Plato and Aristotle both mention him
- Lived to be 90. Life spanned Socrates and Plato. Died 10 years before the birth of alexander the great
Distinct features of the hippocratic oath
Difference between Coan school vs the Cnidian school
The medical academy at Cos had a rival school in with a medical philosophy that competed with the Hippocratic physicians but was not quite as popular or successful. Rival school was Cnidian
What is Hippocratic medicine known for
- Hippocratic Medicine known for clinical observation, diagnosis, and prognosis. Discoveries were written down.
- Medicine divorced from religion and devoted to systematic observation, with no reference to supernatural forces
What is this quote from: “I swear by Apollo the physician, by Aesculapius, Hygeia, and Panacea, and I take to witness all the gods, all the goddesses, to keep according to my ability and judgment the following oath: To consider dear to me as my parents him who taught me this art; to live in common with him and if necessary to shar my goods with him; to look upon his children as my own brothers, to teach them this art if they so desire without fee or written promise…”
Hippocratic Oath
What is this quote from: “Where there is love of humankind, there is also love of the art of medicine”
Hippocratic Ideal
What is this quote from: “With purity and holiness I will pass my life and practice my art”
Hippocratic Ideal
what does abaton mean
an enclosure in the temple of Asclepios where patients slept
What does kline mean
clinician
what does patior mean
patient
Who is Herophilus, when did they live, what are they known for
the first human anatomist (335-280 BC)
- Trained in Cos, influenced by physicians from Cnido
- Most of his life spent in Alexandria
- Dissected more than 600 bodies
- One of the first to compare human and animal morphology
- Established distinction between nerves and tendons
- First to identify difference between cerebrum and cerebellum
- Established distinction between motor and sensory nerves
- Celsus in De Medicina and the church leader Tertullina state that he Vivisected at least 600 live prisoners
Who was Heropholius younger “disciple”
Erarsistratus
What happened to all of Herophilus books
All of his books were lost in the burning of the library of Alexandria. We know about his books because galen commented on them
Who was Erasistratus, when did he live, what was his importance
(310 BC)
- His father and brother were physicians
- Studied first in Athens under disciples of Aristotle, later at Cos
- “father of physiology”
- First description of cardiac rhythm
- Associated hardening of the liver (cirrhosis) with ascites (fluid build up in the abdominal cavity)
- Advocate for experimentation
- Believes more in TISSUES than HUMORS (ahead of his time)
- All of his works were lost as well but we also know about him from Galen
Who are two of the most important scholars of Alexandria
Herophilus and Erasistratus
both anatomists
Who is considered the “father of physiology”
Erasistratus
who was considered the first human anatomist
Herophilus
What is the significance of Pergamon
- Pergamon is modern day Bergama in Turkey. Rival to Alexandria and Rome in terms of splendor. It was favorite of roman emperors
- Parchment was invented in Pergamon because of competition with the library of Alexandria- export of papyrus was banned to keep Pergamon from catching up to library of Alexandria
- Red Basilica in Pergamon. Erected by Hadrian. Early 2nd century. One of the largest roman structures that survives from antiquity
What is parchment
- Parchment is made of skin from sheep, goats, and calves
Who is this, when were they alive, where are they from
- Galen of Pergamon
- Roman 131-201 AD
- Dissected animals
- Prolific writer
- Detailed descriptions of animal anatomy – no illustrations
- Accuracy of descriptions as applied to human anatomy not disputed until the Renaissance
Galen and religion, what is his importance in the church, what did Galen believe
- Church came to believe that galen was divinely inspired HOWEVER galen was not Christian he believed in the demiurge
- Questioning Galen was considered questioning the church which was considered questioning God
Why did Galen go into medicine
His father had a dream in which Aesclepius appeared and said that Galen must study to become a physician
What book did Galen write and what was it about
De Usu Partium: “on the usefulness of the parts of the body”
Who said this: “the human body is so perfect – it must be designed by God”
Galen
what is Rete mirabilis
latin for: “wonderful net”
used in medicine: complex of arteries and veins lying very close to each other
what does theriac mean
an ointment or medical compound that is used on the skin
what are galenicals
an extract or tincture- containing usually one or more active constituents of a plant
what is the demiurge
a supremely intelligent and powerful divine Craftsman (divine creator; not God)
what does pneuma mean
ancient greek: breath
air in motion
what is innate heat
believed by the Greeks to be mix and to move and to balance the humors in the body
what are these
anatomical votives
found in ancient greek medicine
what are the two periods of medieval medicine
- Monastic (first half of the middle ages – “Dark Ages”): Council of Clermont in 1130 forbids practice of medicine by monks as “too disruptive an occupation for an orderly life in monastic sequestration”
- Monastic (first half of the middle ages – “Dark Ages”): Council of Clermont in 1130 forbids practice of medicine by monks as “too disruptive an occupation for an orderly life in monastic sequestration”
What is Salerno and why is it important. Where is it located
first famous medical center of the Middle Ages
- Worlds first “medical school” founded in the 8th century
- Considered “the most important center for the introduction of Arabic medicine into Western Europe
Characteristics of Salerno
- Wealthy
- Progessive, intellectual openness
- During most of the history of the school it was the “only medical school in Europe that opened its doors to women” women physicians were taught and published medical works
- They did not focus only on female diseases, taught and practiced all branches of medicine.
What are the Tortula Texts
- Book on the conditions of women
- On treatments for women
- On women’s cosmetics
Did the church forbid dissection? what was the complications behind this
- Catholic church gradually recognized its own interest in allowing dissection of the human body for two groups: physicians and artists
- In 1482, pope sixtus IV was petitioned by one of the german schools to use the corpses of executed criminals for dissection to confirm Galenic anatomy
- Issued a papal bull allowing local bishops to determine whether the bodies of executed criminals or others who died without wills could be given to universities for doctors to dissect
What are barber surgeons
Were sometimes effective. Use of Wound Man. Would do bleeding and purging and other surgeries like a barber shop
What do the colors on a barber pole represent
Red is linked to bloodletting, white represents bandages. Pole symbolizes stick patients would hold onto to make their veins pop out. Blue is symbolic of veins cut during bloodletting, other theories suggest it was later added to show patriotism as a nod to the nations flag
How did doctors use star charts
Doctors would use zodiac signs to understand illness and best course of treatments
what was uroscopy and the use of urine charts for
- Medieval medicine showed doctors holding flasks of urine up to the light. Urine would be different colors which would help doctors determine their course of treatment
- The Hippocratic Aphorisms include advice on urine-based diagnosis and prognosis. For example: “Colourless urine is bad; it is especially common in those with disease on the brain” and “The presence of particles like coarse meal in the urine of patients with fever signifies a long illness”.
what is this quote from: “Colourless urine is bad; it is especially common in those with disease on the brain”
Hippocratic Aphorims
What is this quote from: “The presence of particles like coarse meal in the urine of patients with fever signifies a long illness”.
Hippocratic Aphorisms
What was the role of women in medieval medicine
Most people were poor so they did not have access to physicians, barber surgeons, or an apothecary. Most people went to women for care because they had years of ancestral practical knowledge in herbs
What is the house of wisdom, where is it located
When was the age of translations
750-900
Islamic hospitals vs. western hospitals
First hospitals built in Islamic world were in Bagdhad. By the 1000 there were 30 hospitals in Islamic world
Islamic medicine
- Guided by sayings of the prophet Muhammad, like, “God never inflicts a disease unless He makes a cure for it,” a goal of restoration of health by rational, empirical means
Hospitals in the west
- Beds and spaces for the sick were laid out so that the patients could view the daily sacrament of the mass
- Plainly (if at all) decorated
- Dim and climate and architecture are often damp
Hospitals in Islamic Cities
- Largely benefited from drier, warmer climates, hospitals were set up to encourage the movement of light and air
- Supported treatment according to humoralism, concerned with corporal rather than spiritual balance.
who said this: “God never inflicts a disease unless He makes a cure for it.” what kind of medicine did it heavily influence
Muhammad
heavily influenced islamic medicine
Who is this, when and where did he live, what is his importance
Al-Razi or Rhazes (850-923)
- Known as the father of islamic medicine
- Born in the persian city of Rey, today it is now a part of Tehran (Iran’s capital)
- Details of his life are sparce but he had a talent for music early in life
- Studied math, philosophy, literature, alchemy before beginning to study medicine at age 30
- Left Persia to study in Baghdad
- Had access to Arabic translations of Hippocrates and Galen
- Acknowledged brilliance of Greek and roman scholars but built on their foundational texts. “when he surpassed them, he said so”
- WROTE DOUBTS ABOUT GALEN, which added more to the theory of humors. Wrote extensively about medical ethics and the importance of morality in medicine
- First to accurately describe and differentiate between smallpox and measles. First to describe allergies/asthma, later called “rose fever.”
- Many remarks on his generosity and compassion
- He treated the hardest cases no one else could figure out
- Became blind but did not have an operation for it
- He was chosen as director of one of the first hospitals in bagdhad.
Who said this: “I’ve seen enough of this old world, and I do not cherish the idea of suffering or the ordeal of an operation of the hope of seeing more of it”
Al-Razi
who was the father of islamic medicine
al-razi
What things was Al-Razi the first for
-First to accurately describe and differentiate between smallpox and measles.
- First to describe allergies/asthma, later called “rose fever.”
- First to recognize pediatrics as an independent specialty
What three books is Al-Razi famous for, what is each of the books about
- His book Diseases of Children was the first to deal with pediatrics as an independent field of medicine
- His Continenes or Comprehensive Book of Medicine was being used 700 years after his death by European students
- Wrote the first medical manual for home use, called Medical Advisor for the General Public (comparable to todays Merk Manual)
Who is this, when and where did he live, what is his importance
Ibn Sina (980-1037)
- Known as the “prince of physicians” also called Avicenna
- Born in modern day Uzbekistan
- Philosopher and physician
- Attempted to reconcile aristitole and Islamic thought
- Mastered Qur’an by age 10
- Child prodigy. Studied natural sciences, law and philosophy, before studying medicine at age 13. Started practicing medicine at 16 yrs old
- The canon of medicine was the greatest medical text in history at the time it was written
Important discoveries
- Potential for airborne transmission of disease
- Research and writing on psychiatric conditions
- Many writings focus on the pulse and characteristics of the urine
- Many writings on the importance of water purity
Famous cases:
- Love sickness
- Prince who thought he was a cow
The floating man:
- Predecessor to Decartes
- “I think therefore I am” and the difference between mind and body
Temperance was not his virtue - wine, women, and work did him in. at end of life he Treated himself with 8 enemas a day resulting in seizures and extreme weakness
How did Al-Razi choose where to place hospitals
Selected location by hanging meat and finding the site where it was slowest to rot.
who was referred to as the “prince of physicians”
Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
What important discoveries did Ibn Sina make
- Potential for airborne transmission of disease
- Research and writing on psychiatric conditions
- Many writings focus on the pulse and characteristics of the urine
- Many writings on the importance of water purity
what book did Ibn Sina write, what year, what is its importance
Wrote the Canon of Medicine in 1025
greatest medical text in history at the time it was written
Who is Al-Nafis what is his importance
- Arab physician mostly famous for being the first to describe to describe the pulmonary circulation of the blood.
- His work regarding the right sided (pulmonary) circulation pre-date the very much later work (1628) of William Harvey’s De Motu Cordis
- He wrote against against Galen’s theory of the “pores in the septum”
- Unknown until rediscovered in 1924 when an Egyptian physician did his doctoral thesis on Al-Nafis
- Though his work did not influence later writers, “the fact that his concept was so boldly stated in the thirteenth century should lead us to question our assumptions about progress and originality in the history”
what does Bimar mean
sick
what does Bimauristan mean
hospital
what does unani mean
arabian or islamic medicine
Who is this, when and where did he live, what is his importance
Maimondes
- 1135-1204; Born in Cordoba Spain. When he was born Jews, Muslims, and Christians lived together in harmony. Eventually fled spain due to mistreatment of Jewish people, fled to Africa.
- His father was a rabbi.
- Still known as one of the most influential Jews in history
- Nickname: RamBam
- wanted to be a rabbi but had to practice medicine to support his family
- many of his most important books/writings were not medical writings, many of his Jewish writings are still in use today including 13 services and beliefs
what is this: “Almighty God! Thou hast chosen me in Thy mercy to watch over the life and death of Thy creatures. I now apply myself to my profession. Support me in this great task so that it may benefit mankind, for without Thy help not even the least thing will succeed.”
Oath and prayer of Maimonides
what language did maimonides write in
Judeo-Arabic
what are the three main books maimondes is known for
-Commentary on the Mishnah
-Mishneh Torah
-Guide for the Perplexed
what did mainmodes write that is still in practice today
13 principles of faith
what is psuedoconversion
When was bloodletting and the use of leeches popularized
Middle ages
Who was Hildegard of Bingen. Importance, where was she from, when did she live
1098- 1179
- besides medicine she is known from her garden and from her time in the monastery, she was an incredibly nun
- Views on women and sexuality
- There are more surviving chants by Hildegard than by any other composer from the entire Middle Ages, and she is one of the few known composers to have written both the music and the words.
- St. Hildegard of Bingen wrote two medical texts, three books of visions and prophecies, one of the first mystery plays, songs, musical compositions, and letters
- Hildegard’s medicine is based on balance, harmony, and holistic healing. She felt that the natural state of the body, when nurtured correctly, was wellness—that “disease [was] not a process, but an absence of process, a failing in the course of nature.” She advocated for moderation, a good diet, and rest, all components of preventive medicine today. She incorporated prayers and charms into her work, but unlike other religious medical writers, she focused on material cures.
what was hildegards medical condition thought to be
intractable migraines, likely what caused her visions
what her hildegards views on women and sexuality
Hildegard recognized and appreciated the distinct power of the female body; she viewed female sexual desire and pleasure as an attribute of the female body itself, as opposed to the result of penetration from outside the body.
Who said this: “. . . because of doubt and low opinion and because of the diverse sayings of men, I refused for a long time the call to write, not out of stubbornness but out of humility, until weighed down by the scourge of God, I fell onto a bed of sickness.”
Hildegard
what is the importance of the book Scivias
hildegards first book of visions
what 2 medical books is hildegard known for
Physica and Causae et curae
these two works focused exclusively on healing
Physica contains nine books. In them, Hildegard outlines the medical uses (or lack thereof) for herbs, foods, animal parts, and even gemstones, including ingredients like lily, oregano, hare bile, and swallow droppings—all found in her preferred treatment for rabies.
Causae et curae is split into sixteen chapters and contains Hildegard’s theories on the body, medicine, diseases, sexuality, and nature as a whole.
Who said this “disease [was] not a process, but an absence of process, a failing in the course of nature.”
Hildegard
definition of lancet
surgical knife
definition of anchorite
religious recluse
what is viriditas
Hildegard believed the natural world and human beings contained what she called viriditas, or “greenness,” which was the life essence of things given by God and which nature, through medicine, could restore.
who said this: “the natural world as having the properties to heal, and humankind as having the skill to do so.”
hildegard
what is this quote from: “. . . The firmament is like the head of man, the sun, moon, and stars are like his eyes, the air like his sense of hearing, the winds like his sense of smell, the dew like his sense of taste, the sides of the world like his arms and his sense of touch. And the other creatures, which are in the world, are like his belly, the earth moreover is like his heart.”
Causae et curae (hildegard)
what does scotoma mean
a partial loss of vision or blind spot in an otherwise normal visual field
Who is this, when and where were they alive, importance
Aristotle (384 - 322 BC)
- Anatomic descriptions in Parts of Animals
- References to illustrations
- No evidence of human dissection
what is the name of this painting, who painted it, when, why is it important
Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicholas Tulp (1632)
- Painted by Rembrandt, first painting he signed his name on
- Point of interest: the way the arm looks. Does not look correct with the way it is connected to the body
- Not a depiction of a real dissection because the organs were always removed first this one does not have them removed
- The person being dissected was real person executed that morning for robbery
- commissioned by the surgeons guild
- Rembrandt’s anatomical portrait radically altered the conventions of the genre, by including a full-length corpse in the center of the image (using Christ-like iconography) and creating not just a portrait but a dramatic mise-en-scène.
who is known for the first book of anatomy (on animals)
aristotle??? no clear answer
What is the significance of Da Vinci’s anatomical drawings
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
- illustrated different systems of organs in logical sequence (first to go head down)
- illustrations of the skeletal system
- illustrating relationships between musculature and the skeleton
- the relationship between internal organs and the body surface
- all of his work is owned by the british royal family
Did Da Vinci’s anatomy drawings influence later renaissance anatomists/artists
NO! HE DID NOT PUBLISH HIS OWN WORK - this is why his drawings did not significantly contribute to the history of anatomy
most of his notes were not fully translated until 1883
what things are unique/specific/defining features of Da Vinci
- he was left handed and wrote right-to-left
- he had his own way of shaping letters
- he did not use punctuation
- he had strange word groupings
- wrote backward and needed a mirror to read it
what nationality was Leonardo Da Vinci
Italian
who said this and what is the importance of it: “Nature made 3 valves and not 4 because the pellicles which close such valves make greater angles being 3 in number”
Leonardo Da Vinci
his drawing of valves
who drew this
Leonardo Da Vinci
Who is this, when and where were they alive, importance
Vesalius
- Born: Brussels, Belgium in 1514
- Early education: humanities and classic languages
- Attended medical school in Paris at age 19- 1533-1536, received his bachelors in medicine at age 22
- In 1537 attended university of Padua to receive his doctoral degree in medicine and graduated that year as well. He was appointed as head of anatomy and surgery one day after her graduated
- Came from a 5 generation long line of doctors
- Grew up on an area close to Gallows Hill – where criminals were executed.
- By age 10 he was dissecting animals and everything he could get his hands on from the gallows
- Found many errors in Galen
- De humani corporis fabrica
- Like galen he was vain, contentious, and sure of himself
- December 1543- last public dissection in padua, destroyed all his papers and left. Left to be a physician to Charles V, the holy roman emperor. Likely planned for some time. Did not like that job because multiple doctors advised the kind and many of them were galentists. Philip II took over but wouldn’t let Vesalius leave. Got permission to go on a pilgrimage and died in a shipwreck on a small island in the mediterranean on his return voyage
What issues did vesalius have with galen
Realized that Galen had dissected only animals, thus making errors regarding human anatomy. The insertions and positions of many muscles were wrong
- No rete mirabile, the keystone of galenic theory, where pneuma was converted
who said this: “galen was deceived by his monkeys”
Vesalius
What was Vesalius’s most important/ famous work
De humani corporis fabrica (or Fabrica for short). First edition published 1543
- Symbolism of front page: weasles, barber surgeons, dogs and monkeys, story of female cadaver (only women in the picture), skeleton in place of Galen
- Composed of 7 books
- Use of ecorche
- Studying man is a way of giving glory to god
- Written in latin and has instructions for performing ones own dissections
- Attacked by everyone bc it refuted galen
Vesalius main contributions
- First accurate anatomy text ever written
- Demonstrated the importance of skepticism: the idea that nothing should be believed that cannot be personally verified
Story behind Vesalius’ death
Went on a pilgrimage and died in a shipwreck on a small island in the mediterranean on his return voyage
Importance of the university of Padua
- Became one of the great centers for studying medicine in the 6th century, with students from every European country. Students were organized into nations, each which elected a ‘president’ to intervene with university authorities.
- Less restrictive than most because it was in the Venetian Republic, which traded with the East and all over Europe
- Has one of the most important botanical gardens in the world- where doctors would gather plants to makes treatments for their patients
Know everything in the video about De Fabrica!
What is the lector
stands above the dissection and reads the textbook
what is the role of the ostensor
pointed to the part of the body to be dissected
what is vivisection
the practice of performing operations on live animals for the purpose of experimentation or scientific research (used only by people who are opposed to such work).
Plague of Athens, when was it, who wrote about it
- Thucydides wrote about the plague of Athens the plague was in 430 BCE during their war with Sparta, but he wrote about it in 410 BCE (20 years after the plague)
- Not bubonic plague likely typhus or typhoid (but no proof of this)
Symptoms included fever and red eyes, the throat and tongue becoming bloody and having horrible breath, followed by sneezing, hoarseness, and chest pain with a hard cough. After that had resolved it resulted in an upset stomach and discharge of all different biles. Next was violent spasms. Body was not hot to touch or pale looking, it was red and was covered in small postules and ulcers. Patient would throw themselves in cold water to try and find some form of relief. Death usually occurred on 7th or 8th day of infection, if they didn’t die than it resulted in problems with the bowels, which was generally fatal. If the patient did survive it left them covered in scars.
Who is Pericles and why was he important
(born c. 495 BCE, Athens—died 429, Athens) Athenian statesman largely responsible for the full development, in the later 5th century BCE, of both the Athenian democracy and the Athenian empire, making Athens the political and cultural focus of Greece. His achievements included the construction of the Acropolis, begun in 447
- Thucydides admired him profoundly and refused to criticize him.
What are other names for the buobonic plague
black death
great dying
was the buobonic plague called “the great death” in the 1300s
yes
Where did the black plague originate? What year did it strike Europe and what country did it enter through?
- Began in central asia before spreading to Europe, middle east, and Mediterranean. Outbreak started with Genoise merchants (spread through trade routes)
- European Population declined between 20-50% between 1347-1351
- In 1347, it spread to Sicily, Italy, France and Spain
- By 1348, spread throughout France, Low Countries,Germany and England.
- By end of 1349, it had spread into Northern Europe,Scandinavia.
- By 1351, it had spread to Eastern Europe and Russia.
Why was there famine in the years before the bubonic plague struck in Europe? What kind of climatic change had happened?
- “little ice age” a period of climate cooling. 1315-1317 there were heavy rains in northern Europe that destroyed harvest.
- 1330s and 1340s southern Europe saw similar temperature changes
- Great famine caused by overall temperature drop of 3 F
What is the causal organism of the plague?
Yersinia pestis (bacterium)
What is the species of the flea that carries the plague bacterium
Xenopsylla cheopis
“The Black Death, 1348” by Boccacio. Be able to recognize passages from his description.
What are the 3 forms of the black plague? what symptoms they are associated with
- Bubonic
- 1st stage of plague: carbuncle or gangrenous black blister surrounded by red pot marks at cite of bite mark, High temperature, Shivering, Violent headache, Nausea and vomiting, And general flu like symptoms
- 2nd stage of plague: Bacteria then begin to invade the lymph system. The infection drains into the lymph nodes. A few days later a bubo appears. Lumps the size of an orange under the skin.
- 3rd stage of plague: Bacteria release a toxin. It begins to attack the tissues, causing blood vessels hemorrhage, and so as it begins to break down the body. body begins to exhibit spots these are clear markers of the plague. rapid degeneration of the muscles of the heart. Kidneys nerves and central Blood shot eyes, general prostration, progressive neurological damage, slurred speech, derangement. Then leads to delirium and coma, Gangrene.
Pneumonic
- The most infectious type, is an advanced stage of plague that moves into the lungs. During this stage, the disease is passed directly, person to person, through airborne particles coughed from an infected person’s lungs
Septicemic
- If untreated, bubonic and pneumonic plague can progress to septicemic plague
Which one is deadlier—bubonic or pneumonic plague?
If left untreated the pneumonic and septicemic killed nearly 100% of people who became infected with it (most deadly)
Three main epidemics (pandemics) of the bubonic plague
The First Plague Pandemic is also known as the Justian Plague
The Second Plague Pandemic is known as The Black Death
The Third Plague Pandemic in the 1800’s was in what part of the world?
- Attracted attention when in attacked Hong Kong and Canton in 1894
Did the plague infect patients depending on their gender or class?
No, it infected everyone equally
What is/are a lazaretto/lazaretti? These are also called pest houses
isolation houses for people who were infected with the plague
What were flagellants
Flagellants are practitioners of a form of mortification of the flesh by whipping their skin with various instruments of penance.
What is this type of art called and why is it important
the dance of the macabre, or the dans macabre “dance with dead”
represented social implications of plague, no one was safe
What is a transi tomb? What is another name for this kind of tomb?
- Cadaver tombs
- New type of tomb that showed the person as they were, but also the decomposition keeping dead alive and exposed
- Tombs prior to the black death had a calm demeanor and did not show decay or death
The bubonic plague has been eliminated in the United States, true or false?
False
bubo/buboes defintion
Large postule from the plague. Typically formed around the bite, but could have multiple
quaranta meaning
40
advantages and disadvantages of ancient egyptian medicine
Disadvantages:
- Contact with animals and other humans led to new diseases and facilitated contagion
- Sewage contributes to disease burden
Advantages:
- Specialized skills develop (healing, bone setting)
- Development of written language and preservation of knowledge
Sumerian clay tablet
2150 BCE
- Describes wounds being washed in beer and hot water and other forms of medical treatments
- Other texts describe the symptoms and prognosis of epilepsy, scurvy, and bronchitis
- A list of 230 medicines using plant, animal, and mineral ingredients was found in an Assyrian pharmacy
Babylonian: Laws of Hammurabi (c. 1790-1750 BCE)
- “if a physician performs a major operation on a lord… and causes his death… they shall cut off his hand.”
- Only wounds, fractures and abscesses were treated surgically- things that could be observed externally
- Disease had a supernatural focus. Thought to be divine punishment of sin
what is this quote from: “if a physician performs a major operation on a lord… and causes his death… they shall cut off his hand.”
Babylonian: Laws of Hammurabi
who is this, when and where did they live, what is their importance
Giovanni Battista Morgagni
Feb 25, 1682 (forli) - Dec 6, 1771 (padua)
- Innovation: write up case studies that correlated with clinical observations correlated with findings at autopsy
- His books had an index
- went to Bologna for medical school. Studied under Valsalva and got his degree at 19. Invited to assist Valsalva and worked with him after graduation for about 6 years. Afterward he went back to Forli to practice medicine, where he stayed for around 5 years and built a private practice. Invited to Padua to teach at the University of Padua and stayed there as a professor of anatomy until his death
- Devout catholic. Married and had 15 children 3 were sons and all surviving daughters (8) became nuns
- Started the idea to identify pathology before the autopsy (clinicopathology correlation)
- Was one of the most renowned physicians in the world.
- After morgagnis death, seat of learning in medicine moved to paris
What things is morgagni known as the father of
- Father of Pathological Anatomy
- Father of physical examination
- Illness had to do with a diseased organ, the humoral theory began to disappear
- He is credited with the anatomic concept of disease
What are Morgagnis most important book
De Sedibus et Causes Morborum per Anatomen Indagatis: “of the seats and causes of diseases investigated through anatomy” ONE OF THE TOP THREE MOST IMPORTANT MEDICAL BOOKS IN HISTORY
- Published 1761 (age 79) this is a turning point in medical history and they knew it at that time. It is composed of 70 letters and 700 cases divided into 5 books. (diseases of the head, diseases of the thorax, diseases of the abdomen, diseases of a general nature and diseases treated by surgery, supplements (Indices))
- Described symptoms the person had
- Nothing do with humors, innate heat, where you lived. It had to do with diseased organs → end of the humoral theory
What book is this from: “A man of about 54 years of age, had begun 5 or 6 months before, to be somewhat emaciated in his whole body… a troublesome vomiting came on, of a fluid which resembled water, tinctued with soot… Death took place… in the stomach… was an ulcerated cancerous tumor…”
De Sedibus et Causes Morborum per Anatomen Indagatis
who said this: Symptoms are “the cries of the suffering organs”
Morgagni
What is the Hippocratic Triangle?
what is the “the medical model”
Organismic theory/ the medical model:
Ontological theory:
- Disease is from outside the patient, causes exist separate from the patient
- Disease is a separate being or entity
- What the patient HAS
Physiological theory
- Causes emerge from inside the patient
- Diseases do not exist separate from the patient
- Who or what the patient IS
In either case, disease effects individuals, is “discontinuous” (episodic, intermittent) and bad
non-organismic theory of disease and alternate terms
- Population based or ECOLOGICAL theory of disease
- Disease is a constant
- Cannot be eradicated
what does nosology mean
(careful observation of symptoms) Patterns of suffering
what does ubi est morbus mean
where is the disease (disease was understood to be localized)
what does disease mean
an idea about the illness. A theory constructed to explain the illness
what does illness mean
designates individual suffering real suffering felt by a particular person
pathology/autopsy (etiology of these words)
Autopsy: “to see for yourself”
Pathology: comes from Greek work “pathos” which means suffering
Five functions of pathology
explain suffering, diagnosis, predicting outcomes (prognosis), justify treatment, proof in the postmortem
Who is this quote about “His years were characterized by regularity of habits and consistency of devotion to his scientific work, to his large family, and to the religious principles that guided both his search for the truth and the stability of his spirit.”
Nuland on Morgagni
who is this quote about: A century after Vesalius, “ there is more to be learned from the dissection of one person who had died of tuberculosis or other chronic malady than from the bodies of ten persons who had been hanged.”
Harvey on Morgagni
who is this quote about, “The full consequences of what he worked out were harvested in London and Paris, in Vienna and in Berlin. And thus we can say that, beginning with Morgagni and resulting from his work, the dogmatism of the old schools was completely shattered, and that with him the new medicine begins”
Virchow on Morgagni
Who is this, when and where did they live, what is their significance
William Harvey (1578-1657)
- English, studied in padua
- Most important work: De Motu Cordis: “on the motion of the heart” 72 pages long
- Oldest of 7 boys, his father was a Turkish merchant who was very wealthy
- Always in perpetual motion and described as choleric (operating under the idea of the 4 humors)
- Went to college in Cambridge and in Canterbury where he studied classics. Hated contemporary literature. He could read in Greek and latin
- Went to the best medical school in the world (Padua)
- Named president of the English nation at padua
- Studied under the famous anatomist: Fabricius
- Had a successful career as doctor for nobility and royalty including James I, Charles I and saved the lives of 4 women accused of being witches
- 1616: at age 38 he was appointed into the Lumlian Lectureship at the Royal College of Physicians
- “on the generation of animals” a book of embryology, 1651
- KNOWN FOR his experiments and the use of the scientific method. FIRST to use QUANTITATIVE methods in research
what did fabricus do
Fabricius discovered valves in the veins but did not know what they were for. Thought they might be to slow the blood down
what books did Harvey publish
De Motu Cordis (“on the motion of the heart”) - his most important/famous work
“on the generation of animals” book on embryology, 1651
what is harvey known for
use of the scientific method and quantitative research methods
about De Motu Cordis
- Published in 1628 “of the motion of the heart” (harvey)
- First published in latin and then after 25 years published in English
- During the time of galen most info would’ve been in Greek. During the renaissance is when most of this got translated to latin
- full name “Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus” on the motion of the heart and blood in animals
what book is this from: “In truth, when, from a variety of investigators through dissection of the living in order to experiment and through the opening of arteries, from the symmetry and magnitude of the ventricles of the heart and of the vessels entering and leaving (since Nature, who does nothing in vain, would not have needlessly given these vessels such relatively large size), from the skillful and careful craftsmanship of the valves and fibers and the rest of the fabric of the heart, and from many other things, I had very often and seriously though about, and had long turned over in my mind, how great an amount there was, that is to say how great the amount of transmitted blood would be [and] in how short a time that transmission would be effected…I began privately to think that it might rather have a certain movement, as it were, in a circle…”
De Motu Cordis
- Harvey
Who is this, what is their significance, what is their story
Leopold Auenberger (1722-1809)
- Before Laenec Son of tavern keeper who would thump kegs to see how full or empty they were (Austrian, Vienna)
- Used percussion to examine tubercular patients, based on observation from the kegs
- Just after morgagnis work, but his work was not well accepted or translated so it was forgotten (published in latin)
- Published Inventum Novum ex Percussione Thoracies Humani Interni Pectoris Morbos Detergendi, 1761; “a new discovery that enables the physician from the percussion of the human thorax to detect the diseases hidden within the chest”
who is this, what is their importance, what is their story?
- Jean-Nicolas Corvisart 1755-1821: founder of French method of physical examination.
- Supported the revolution; religious sceptic; hostile to classics and the church
- Discovered Auenbrugger’s work and translated it to French.
- Predicted anatomical findings with success (predicted what was found in autopsies, but in living patients): start of bedside medicine - known for “walking the wards”
- Inspection, percussion, palpation, auscultation
- Developed a three part system for examination: 1. Careful history and physical examination; 2. The autopsy/postmortem exam; 3. Clinical correlation
- All incorporated into medical education. Teaching focus shifted from the university to the hospital
who is this, when were they alive, what are their contributions
Rene Laennec
- 1781-1826; born in Brittany, France
- Mother died of TB when he was 5/6 - moved around a lot. Went to live with his grand uncle the abbe Laennec (priest). At 12 live with his uncle guillaime-francois Laennec who worked in the faculty of medicine at the university. He began studying medicine under his uncle.
- Learned English and german
- His father (lawyer) discouraged him from continuing as a doctor and Rene then had a period of time where he took long walks in the country, danced, studied Greek, wrote poetry, and played the flute
- Began to develop symptoms of ‘asthma’. In 1799 at 18 yrs old he asked his dad for money and then walked all the ways to paris to study medicine
- Studied med in paris under several famous physicians including Dupuytren and Corvisart.
- Joined Corivasrts clinic in 1801
- Exciting time – golden age of French medicine: “Peu lu, beaucoup voir, beacoup faire” meaning “read little, see much, do much” - cant learn medicine from just reading you must do!
- 1802 (age 21) published a paper on valvular disease of the heart, later one on veneral disease, and another on peritonitis
- 1803: wins medal for the most accomplished medical/surgical student
who is this, what is their story, what is their importance
Guy de Chauliac 1300-1368
- Father of Surgery
- “what surgeons ought to be”
- Notable for promoting professionalism and nontechnical skills
- Poor peasant family but was able to study medicine because the church paid for it through scholarship
- Studied in Bologna and Paris
- Became physician to three popes
- Caught, but survived, the black plague
- Surgeons should not only know the principles of surgery but the theory of practice and art.
- Chirugia Manga “The Great Surgery”
who is this person, when and where were they alive, what is their importance
- Ambroise Pare 1510-1590
- “gentle surgeon”
- “father of military medicine”
- Italian wars of 1495-1559
- Wars of religion 1562-1598
- born and died in France
- Father was cabinet maker, his older brother was a barber surgeon
- Famous during his lifetime - most famous 16th century surgeon
- Renowned for his expertise in military medicine
- Served four french kings: Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III
- Hotel Dieu: renowned hospital in paris near notre dame cathedral. Established in 500-600s and still standing
- Nicknames: The Gentle Surgeon and the Father of Military Medicine
who is this, when and where did they live, what is their significance
John Hunter
- Nationality: Scottish, but spent most of his career in london
- One of ten children, initially apprenticed to a carpenter
- Father of Scientific Surgery
- Never completed formal apprenticeship to a surgeon, he questioned and challenged standard practices. Didn’t learn to revere and respect his masters. Thought for himself, “self-made”
- Became an army surgeon because he knew it would give him more autonomy also began to explore more marine biology
- “never let school interfere with his education”
- started with the study of teeth
- Wrote first textbook on dentistry
- Did implants
- Helped develop the nomenclature of the tooth
- Took out normal teeth and implanted into wealthy ladies jaws “guinea for a tooth”
- Working alongside a dentist was considered even lower than a barber surgeon
- Had an older brother who established himself as a successful surgeon in London
- Exceeded his brothers expectations in some ways-less in others. “they wanted to make an old woman of me…” p. 178
- Did not write a lot, mostly spoke. He was not a good lecturer
- “this oratorical deficiency was to plague him and his students, for the rest of his life…”
- Did not like lectures, preferred teaching one on one
- Took opioids before lectures
who is this, when and where were they alive, what is their significance
louis pasteur (1822-1895)
- French microbiologist and chemist
- Germ theory.
- Came up with the idea of pasteurization
- Found if he heated wine to 130 it would kill the bacteria but not damage the wine
- Still used in milk
- Married Marie Laurent, daughter of university rector
- Had 5 children, 3 died of typhoid
- Had first stroke at 45, severe stroke at 71, died of stroke in Paris at age 72
- Did vaccine development
- He has some ethical issues with his career, some lab notebooks revealed some scientific misconduct and some improper human experiments - injecting vaccines in humans before animal trials or proven safe. He advocated scientific and medical ethics and said these needed done on animals first, but didn’t really follow this all the time
- “as a matter of fact, there is no one living in the entire world to whom the medical sciences owe so much as they do to you..” lister to pastuer when they met at end of their lives
- Musee Pasteur in paris
Located within institute pastuer; Apartment where he spent last 7 years of life
- Some 1000 scientific instruments
who is this, when and where did they live, what is their significance
Joseph Lister (1827-1912)
- His father was a wine merchant and quaker. He was an amateur at optics. Developed lenses for microscopes that greatly enhanced their capacity – pastuer greatly benefited from this. He made pastuers discoveries possible and Pasteur made listers discoveries possible
- Came from a quaker home (not part of church of England so there were a lot of universities he couldn’t go to)
- Could read French and german
- Attended university college in London
- Initially studied botany
- ENGLISH but spent most of his life in Scotland
- Expert with microscope
- Became member of royal college of surgeons at age 26. Then moved to Edinburgh: first (incomplete)
- Tall handsome humble and a winsome personality, very easy going
- Appointed in 1900 to surgeon to queen Victoria
- President of royal society of surgeons
- father of modern surgery
who is this and what is there importance
Joseph Priestley 1733-1804
- discovered nitrous oxide (1772)
- english chemist and minister
- most famous for discovering oxygen and its properties (1774)
Who is this, when and where did they live, what is their significance
Humphry Davy (1778-1829)
- english chemist
- experimented with psychotropic properties of nitrous
- described his observation in a book, published 1800
- first did experiments on himself, multiple experiments on animals too
- first to describe the properties of nitrous oxide
who is this and what is their significance
Horace Wells (1815-1848)
- discovered the use of nitrous oxide as anesthesia: went to nitrous oxide show, used it, his his knee, then realized he could use it to pull teeth. He had his friend pull one of his own teeth, began to use it on patients, found it to be very safe and effective
realized nitrous oxide could be used for surgery
Who is this and what is their importance
William Morton (1819- 1868)
- had been experimenting with sulphuric ether while nitrous was being popularized
- despite the fact nitrous had failed he wanted to try ether
-tried live demonstation of ether in the ether dome in 1846 and it was a success
- dental student of wells
who is this and what is their importance
Charles Jackson (1805- 1880)
- Morton wanted a patent on ether and was going to sell the rights to distribution, he would not tell anyone what it was
- charles jackson, a chem prof, claims he gave morton the idea
- decided to get a patent together
-Letheon
who is this and what is their importance
James Young Simpson (1811-1870)
- scottish surgeon
- used chloroform in 1847
- used in obstetrics
who is this and what is their importance
Crawford W. Long (1815-1878)
- used ether to anesthetize on of his patients to take cysts of his back
- the only physician associated with who we are learning about in the history of anesthesia
- did not think this was a significant finding, had been to ether frolics as a med student
- modest man but reluctantly states his claimed, prevailed upon by his friends, to claim to $100,000 from congress
- extremely well trained
- famous as sone of the most important people in the history of georgia
- statue of him in the capitoll building
who is this and what is their importance
Semmelweis (1818-1865)
- He was Hungarian and lived in Austria-Hungary
- Born in Hungary, Studied at the University of Vienna
- Pioneer of antiseptic policy
- Discovered the root cause of childbed fever
- At this time, women who were taken care of by the midwives always had better outcomes than women who were taken care by doctors. Midwives were often given “lower class” people in society that doctors did not want to treat
Who is this, what is their significance
Virchow
- From Pomerania in Germany (1821-1902)
- Father was a farmer
- Got his education by going through the military
- Learned how to use a microscope and for the rest of his life, his contributions are related to his work with the microscope.
- The Pope of German Medicine
- “Cellular Pathology”, p 324
- Cell Theory of Disease
- After Virchow it is not pathological ANATOMY but pathological PHYSIOLOGY that is causing disease
- How does normal function become ABNORMAL? The Cell Theory answers this question
- Small intense man, dynamo of energy
- Spoke German, French, Dutch, Italian, Hebrew, Greek, Arabic, Latin, could read Hippocrates directly
- Taught, practiced, published, including a 6 volume handbook of what he called Social Pathology and Therapeutics
- Famous for being one of the greatest teachers in medical history.
what is virchows triad
what/who is this about
soranus of ephesus
what/who is this about
soranus of ephesus
who is this, what is their importance
Florence Nightingale (1820-1910)
Born in Florence, Italy
*Affluent British family
(Mother – merchant family, Father – wealthy landowner)
- Socially awkward
- Received a classical education
- German, French, and Italian, Greek,
and Latin
- A philanthropist from a young age
- Decided nursing was her calling—she did not think of herself as religious but when she was 17, felt that God spoke to her, calling her to future “service”
* Parents were not pleased
* Defied their expectations
* Refused a marriage proposal at the age of 17
1851: Travels to Germany for nursing training
* 1853 - Became superintendent for a hospital for gentlewomen
Returned to England in 1856
Established the Nightingale Training School for Nurses
at St. Thomas’ Hospital in London
* Commissioned young nurses
* Established nursing training on the Nightingale Model
Published “Notes on Nursing” in 1859
* Covers sanitation, military nursing, and hospital
planning
florence nightingale infection control, self-care, assessment, therapeutic communication, spiritual nursing, public health advocacy
who is this, what is their importance
Dr. James Barry 1789-1865
- Born in Cork, Ireland
- Graduate of Edinburgh
- Military Officer and Surgeon
- Said to have performed first C-Section in British Empire
- Travelled with the British army— England, Canada and South Africa
Born Margaret Anne Bulkley
- Went with her aunt to Edinburgh to
study medicine as James Barry.
- Short stature, unbroken voice, delicate features and smooth skin..
- Lived as a James Barry for 56 years
who is this what is their importance
Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910)
* Born in Bristol, England
* 3rd of Nine Children
* Father: Samuel Blackwell
* Sugar Refinery Owner, Abolitionist
* Mother: Hannah Lane Blackwell
* Lived with 15 people
* Parents + 4 Maiden Aunt + 9 Children
In 1830, riots broke out in Bristol
* Samuel decided to move family to America
* August 1832 the Blackwell family boarded the Cosmo destine for
New York
* Samuel Blackwell became active in reform circles
* In 1836, the family sugar refinery was burned down
* Family forced to move to Cincinnati, Ohio
* Three weeks after move to Cincinnati, Samuel suddenly died of
biliary fever
who is this and what is their importance
Marion Sims (1813-1883)
- American surgeon
- One of the most famous
physicians in the country.
- First American physician to become famous in Europe
- President of AMA in 1876
- Developed repair of
vesicovaginal fistual
- incredibly controversial
what is this called and a monument of
“Mothers of Gynecology” monument of the three known slaves who marion sims did his experiments on
who is this and what is her importance
Helen Brooke Taussig (1898-1986)
- American cardiologist
- Worked in Baltimore and
Boston
- Founded pediatric cardiology
- Blalock Thomas Taussig
shunt
- Worked at Johns Hopkins
- Worked at banning
thalidomide
- Mother died of TB when she was a child
- Struggled with dyslexia as a student
- Studied at both Harvard and Boston University though neither allowed her to earn a degree
- Accepted to Johns Hopkins
- Completed MD in 1927
Worked at Harriet Lane Home 1930 until 1963
- 1946 first “blue baby operation” in
humans
- 1947 Magnum opus: Congenital Malformations of the Heart
- 1959 promoted to full professor
- 1963 retirement (formally)
- 1965 first woman president of the American Heart Association
Who is this and what was her importance
Marie Curie (1867-1934)
- Polish
- Spent most of her life in France
- Discovered radium and polonium
- won 2 nobel prizes
who said this
elizabeth blackwell
who said this
elizabeth blackwell
who said this
elizabeth blackwell
what painting is this and what is the significance
- The gross clinic: Thomas Eakins (artist), 1875
- It depicts the Philadelphia physician Samuel D. Gross and the members of his “clinic” performing bone surgery on a young man, while a figure often thought to be the patient’s mother cringes nearby. Known in his day as “the emperor of American surgery,” the 70-year- old Gross is depicted turning from the patient to address his students in the surgical amphitheater at Jefferson Medical College. Eakins’ viewpoint thrusts the viewer into the role of one of Gross’ students, observing the operation.
- Dark photo color wise
what painting is this and what is this significance
The Agnew clinic: Thomas Eakins, 1889
- In the painting, Agnew, the first John Rhea Barton Professor of Surgery, stands off center, holding a bloodless (as he insisted to Eakins) scalpel in his left hand (he was ambidextrous), and pauses for a moment from his surgery to teach. The viewer’s eye is drawn successively to Agnew, the surgical team, and finally the spectators. Unlike The Gross Clinic, this operating area is artificially lit. Asepsis is more in evidence, and even though there are no gloves or masks, the patient is draped, instruments and towels are sterilized,7 Agnew and his staff are dressed in white gowns, and a nurse is in attendance. Instead of chloroform gauze, an ether cone is used with a Squibb ether container.
- Physicians in light outfits, lighter photo color theorywise
- White coats served as a sartorial marker of the adoption of Lister’s antiseptic practice—they allowed for a more immediate realization of stains or errant bodily fluids, therefore encouraging more frequent washing. The switch from the dark outfits of Gross’s theatre to this pristine white happened gradually from 1860 to 1910.[6]
- Fitzharris describes The Agnew Clinic as “the embodiment of antisepsis and hygiene” and as “Listerism, triumphant.”[7] After one looks at The Gross Clinic, where the ungloved and bloodied hand is the narrative and compositional center of the work, the cleanliness of the surgeon’s hand in The Agnew Clinic is striking. The air, the clothing, and the hands in Agnew’s clinic are all markedly lighter, whiter, and cleaner than the clinic portrayed fourteen years previously—before the advent of Lister’s system.
who is this and what is their significance
William Osler (1849-1919)
- 1872 received medical degree from Mcgill Uni
- 1874 lecturer, then full professor at McGill
- 1884 Moves to PHILADELPHIA where he becomes professor of clinical medicine at the University of Pennsylvania
- 1888 Johns Hopkins, famous for his educational reforms
- 1892 published “The Principles and Practice of Medicine”
- 1904: Regius professorship of medicine at Oxford university
- Famous for his command of the humanities and his insistence that his students become familiar with history of medicine
- considered one of the most influential figures in medicine in the english speaking world
