Final exam Flashcards
Define personality using the psychological triad
An individuals characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and patterns
Psychological triad
Affect, behavior, cognition (ABC)
Five basic approaches to explaining human personality
- Trait approach
- Biological approach
- Psychoanalytical approach: unconscious mind
- Phenomenological approach: conscious experience
- Learning and cognitive processes
Describe concept of “One Big Theory” and explain if it applies to personality
Theory that accounts for certain things well, but won’t account well for other things. It does not apply to personality because if we have one big theory then it’s less likely to thoroughly answer the question, as opposed to having multiple questions.
Describe the four main sources of data for personality research and identify one advantage and one disadvantage for each
- S-Data: Self reports like questionnaires. A: easy and fast to collect. D: people are motivated to portray themselves better
- I-Data: Informant’s reports. A: They observe you in the real world. D: They might not know everything about you.
- L-Data: Life outcomes that are verifiable facts (gpa, income) A: Real facts awe can verify. D: It doesn’t always tell us everything about a person.
- B-Data: Behavioral data by directly observing sample group. A: Can create a situation for your study. D: Can’t always observe the things you want to study.
Contrast reliability and validity and identify the statistic they are both based
Reliability: consistently yields the same result
Validity: measures what it intends to measure (truth)
Both are based on correlation statistics (r).
Describe factors that undermine reliability and techniques to improve reliability.
Undermine: low precision, state of participants, state of experimenter, the environment
Improve: standardized research protocol (ex. script for SAT), care with research procedure, measure something important, aggregation
Define aggregation
Averaging
Type of reliability
Interated reliability
Describe two types of validity
- Convergent: seeing how one test designed to assess a construct correlates with other tests assessing the same construct
- Discriminant: Unlike other measures of different constructs
Define generalizability and name 3 participant characteristics that are facets
The extent to which a measurement can be found under diverse circumstances
1. Gender bias
2. Shows vs. no-shows
3. Ethnic and cultural diversity
Describe factor analysis and identify how it is related to validity.
Analyzes correlations among questions in a test. Related to validity because it answers “are we measuring what we say we’re measuring”
Describe the basic components of correlational research. Explain the major drawback of
correlational research and identify two general categories of alternative explanations.
- Naturalistic and un-intrusive
- No manipulation
- Cause and effect cannot be determined
- Reverse causation problem
- Third variable problem
Describe the basic components of experimental research. Explain two benefits and two
major drawbacks of experimental research.
- Manipulate predictor
- Measure outcome
- Generalizable, ethical considerations
What are the 6 types of psychological testing
- Physiognomy
- Phrenology
- Association method
- Personal data sheet
- MMPI
- Neo-PI
Physiognomy information
- Aristotle (350 BCE)
- Way of measuring by looking at physical attributes to tell about their personality
Phrenology information
- Francis Gall (1758-1828)
- Read contours of the skull to discern personality traits
Association method
- Carl Jung (1875-1961)
- Standardized list of words with interpretation guidelines
Personal data sheet
- Robert Woodworth (1869-1962)
- 116 true/false items to measure neurotic symptoms
- PTSD
- Logically selected
MMPI
- Hathaway and Mickinley (1943)
- Focuses on pathology
- Empirically selected
NEO-PI
- Costa and McCrae (1985)
- Big 5, created by using factor analysis
Contrast omnibus and single-trait assessments and provide an example of each.
Omnibus: measures a wide-range of personality traits
Single-trait: measures a single trait
Describe the projective hypothesis. Contrast the Rorschach test with the Thematic
Apperception Test.
Projective hypothesis: with relatively little structure, the personality can be shown through their response
Rorschach test: Inkblot used to test schizophrenia
Thematic Apperception test: Seeing an ambiguous image and describing it. Reveals past experiences, current motivations, conscious& unconscious
Define objective test construction. Compare the rational or logical method, the factor
analytic method, and the empirical method.
Objective test construction: objective=list of questions
Rational method: logic and experience.
- Think of questions that are rationally related to what the developer wants to measure
- Face validity
Empirical method: Relies on data (not just an assumption) using 100% valid indicators
Factor analytical method: Let the data tell you what the dimensions of personality are
Contrast statistical significance with effect size. Explain the importance of effect size in
personality research.
Statistical significance: could this happen by chance
Effect size: how strong the effect is between variables
Define deception in psychological research. From an example, identify whether deception
exists in a study.
Deception: investigators provide false or incomplete info for the purpose of misleading people
Provide one argument for deception and one argument against deception in psychological
research.
For: informed consent
Against: harms credibility of psychology
Describe Gordon Allport’s major contribution to the study of personality.
He narrowed down 4,500 trait like words to describe human traits
Define personality traits using the psychological triad and relate traits to the concept to
“individual differences.” Describe the two primary reasons for identifying traits.
- An individuals characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
- Traits=individual differences
- We want to understand thoughts, feelings, behaviors, in order to predict thoughts, feelings, behaviors
Contrast single-trait, multi-trait, essential trait and typological approaches to explaining
people. Identfy the question that each approach asks.
Single trait: identify a trait: what do ___ people do?
Multi-trait: identify behavior: who does that?
Essential trait: which trait is most important
Typological approach: Are there groups of people that are like each other and different from everyone else
Describe self-monitoring and identify characteristics of high and low self-monitors.
Self monitoring: individual differences in expressive control
Low: regulate self according to internal beliefs. Less concerned with social context
High: Readily adjust their behavior to situation at hand. Act “appropriately”
Describe narcissism and identify characteristics of people who score high and low on narcissism. Differentiate narcissism from high self-esteem.
High: charming, good looking, satisfied, take risks, arrogant, feels superior
Low: poor leaders, insecure, rarely feel special
Explain the multi-trait approach and describe the Q-sort task as an assessment of traits.
Identify a behavior, what traits are derived, and who does that.
Q-sort: The method made participants sort characteristics they thought were most to least descriptive of them. This caused forced choice.
Summarize the two methods of uncovering essential traits.
Theoretical method: reduce the many to a few by thinking about it
Factor analytical method: reduce the many traits to a few using data analysis
Recognize theorists and practices associated with the theoretical and factor-analytic methods of
identifying essential traits.
Theoretical: Henry Murray (20 needs)
Block and block:
- ego control: over control vs under-control of impulses
- ego resiliency: adjust levels of control depending on situation
Factor analytical: Raymond Cattell (16 essential traits)
- Came up with 16 personality factor questionnaire
Hans Egsenck
- Based on physiology and genetics
Explain the lexical hypothesis and its application to the study of personality traits.
Lexical hypothesis: Personality characteristics that are important to a group of people will eventually become a part of that groups language
Define and explain each of the Big 5 traits of personality. Identify characteristics of individuals
who score high and low on each trait. Where appropriate, identify advantages/disadvantages of
the traits and correlates of high and low scores.
- Extraversion: social vs quiet, fun-loving vs. serious, affectionate vs. reserved
- Neuroticism: worried vs. calm, insecure vs. secure, self-pitying vs. self-satisfied
- Conscientiousness: organized vs. disorganized, careful vs. careless, disciplined vs. impulsive
- Agreeableness: softhearted vs. ruthless, trusting vs. suspicious, helpful vs. uncooperative
- Openness: (most controversial). Openness to experience/culture/intellect - open-minded
Describe the typological approach and contrast it with the essential trait approach. Explain limitations to the typological approach to personality traits.
Typological approach: putting people into boxes:
1. well-adjusted
2. maladaptive over-controlling
3. maladaptive under-controlling
Essential trait is seeing which traits are more important
Rank order consistency
People tend to maintain the way they are different from others of the same age.
- Childhood traits predict adult outcomes
Heterotypic continuity
Behaviors associated with temperament change with age
- The personality traits endure (feelings stay the same)
Cumulative continuity
Personality traits are stable across lifespan and consistency increases with age
Cohort effects
When different ages are measured simultaneously, the larger sociocultural environment which an individual grew up may have an effect on differences
Provide examples of data that support the notion that childhood traits predict adult outcomes.
- 4-6 year olds who are inhibited: 19 years later, slower to find romantic partner
- elementary school kids who are adaptable: cheerful and curious adults
Define temperament and describe the three temperament types discussed in class. Explain two
limitations of this (typological) approach to describing temperament.
Temerapement: baby personality, the consistent individual differences
Types: easy baby, difficult baby, slow to warm baby
Limitations: not all babies can be classified, variation within type
For each temperament type, identify associations between the temperament type and later (enduring) characteristics and behaviors.
Easy baby: socially competence and adjustment
Difficult baby: poor peer relations, potentially more legal troubles, difficult partners
Slow to warm baby: anxiety, depression, phobias
Summarize the research on the effects of birth order on personality and intelligence
Birth order has no effect on personality.
- First born: higher C, Later born: higher IQ, O,E,A
Provide three examples of early experiences that influence personality.
- Parental rejection
- Stress (poverty/maltreatment)
- Educated parents/prosperity
Describe cross-sectional research design. Utilizing cross-sectional research, explain the patterns seen in the Big Five traits in terms of age and gender. Identify the most stable trait
Assesses people of different ages and look for average differences.
- Adolescent decline in E,
- Adolescent dip in C, O, A,
- Gender difference in N (for women)
Describe longitudinal research design. Utilizing longitudinal research, identify trends in personality change for each Big Five trait.
Following the same people over time. Personality traits increase for all Big Five traits
Describe overall effects of psychotherapy and psychiatric drugs on personality/behavior change. Summarize the findings of Smith & Glass (1977).
Shows that long term personality change is possible, and it doesn‘t matter what kind of psychotherapy. Study looked at different kinds of psychotherapy and concluded that they are all effective and the type doesn‘t matter.
Describe a general intervention program and identify its effect on high school graduation and arrest.
Focusing on 25 different schools and providing those kids with intense schooling programs, parenting training, health and nutrition. The kids later were more likely to graduate high school and not get arrested
Describe targeted interventions and provide examples of traits that can be changed in this way.
More focused.
Example: People of ages 60-94 did reasoning abilities, sudoku, crossword: increased O
Example: Teaching parents of anxiety-prone kids about exposure therapy: lower N in children
Draw the diagram identifying the steps to personality change. Explain the procedure that leads to personality change according to this model.
Precondition 1: changing trait-related behaviors is considered desirable or necessary
Precondition 2: changing trait-related behavior is feasible
3: Self-regulated changes become habitual
4: Trait change
