Final Exam Flashcards
What is “Wrong” with most popular
discussions of intergroup relations?
Intergroup relations are not always negative and extreme
Negative relations are just one part of the story
Positive and Generous cross-group helping
Much of intergroup relations involves mundane daily interactions
What are intergroup relations?
The study of how our thoughts, feelings and behavior are influenced by the groups we belong to and how people from different groups relate to one another.
What are the 3 levels of analysis?
- structural/ societal level processes (macro)
- face to face interpersonal (meso)
- intrapersonal processes (micro)
What makes intergroup relations complex?
- Correlation does not necessarily mean causation.
- Most interesting phenomenon have multiple cause
“It depends” – Most effects are moderated by other variables
We need to understand the process/mediators that account for effects.
People are complex and dynamic
Intergroup relations occur at multiple levels of analysis
What is group-based privilege?
- Benefits that happen to individuals who belong to certain groups.
- Things that could be available to all groups, but are not.
- Things that cannot be available to everyone, but are reserved for members of only some groups.
- The unequal distribution of limited resources is not bases only on individual merit or effort.
What is unearned advantage?
Receiving opportunities and resources that are not tied to personal achievement or contribution
What is conferred dominance?
Having the ability to control others that is not tied to personal achievement or contribution.
What is an example of the macro level of the levels of analysis?
Privilege because it results from the structural relationship between groups
What is privilege?
Privilege is about “being treated” (or experiencing the world) on the basis of your collective identity
E.g. positive stereotypes, positive prejudice, inclusion, status bias, positive discrimination
What do privilege and disadvantage have in common?
Privilege is not just the lack of advantage. Disadvantage is not just the lack of privilege.
What are 3 elements of privilege?
- having the freedom to define oneself (and to be seen by others) as an individual
- building an ideology of individualism
- justifying inequality
What is ingroup projection?
The prof was of seeing one’s ingroup as “the default”
Define individualism
A strong belief in individual
determinism & individual responsibility
Provide an example of colour-blind orientation
Downplaying the role of group-based differences in opportunities, because
personal position is seen to be the result of individual ability and responsibility
How can the psychology of privileged groups lead to the perpetuation of group-based inequality even in the
absence of prejudiced attitudes towards the disadvantaged group and its members?
The structural inequalities that create privilege are supported and maintained by the ideology and actions of those who are privileged.
Name some possible solutions to reduce privilege.
- Large Scale Societal Solutions involve the redistribution of power across groups
- Small Scale Individual Solutions involve reflecting on one’s own privilege, but this can be
Define numerical privilege
Being the majority
What were the findings in the study about numerical privilege?
White members felt threatened by the possibility of becoming a minority in the future and began demonstrating, Anger, Fear and Less liking of East Asian Canadians
Explain the outcomes of the study focused on acknowledging white privilege.
PRODUCED higher levels of collective guilt which….
PRODUCED lower levels of modern racism
Collective guilt
unpleasant emotional state involving a shared realization that one’s group or social unit has violated ethical or social principles, together with associated feelings of regret
What are some benefits associated to being aware of privilege?
- Greater knowledge of self (and society).
- Reduce the chances of unintentionally offending others.
- More comfort and ease in diverse situations.
- Motivation to address system-level inequality
- And be a better ally/accomplice when you do
Inequality breeds __
More inequality
Competitive Mindset (privilege)
Increased Social/ Evaluative Stress
• Lower Trust in others and the system
• Increased feelings of Threat
• Narrowing of Social Capital
greater income inequality is
associated with a variety negative social outcomes such as..
Life Expectancy
Infant Mortality
Homicides
Imprisonment
Teenage births
Obesity
Math & Literacy Scores
Social Mobility
Mental Illness
Income inequality increased group-based competitive mindset results in
reduced trust, increased social stress, and – leading to behaviours
that increase inequality
Wealth is another
Example of privilege
What are some examples of scarcity and poor decisions?
Scarcity of Time (being “Time Poor”)
Scarcity and Borrowing from the future
Scarcity and “Splurging”
What is splurging?
Spending money freely/ extravagantly
Income inequality is
high and growing + many negative consequences
Sexism focuses on:
attitudes, actions, and institutions that limit opportunities and outcomes for women.
Distinguish prejudice and the “isms”
Racism, Sexism, Classism, etc:
- not just negative prejudice
and/or
- not just ingroup bias/ingroup preference)
BUT
- power to discriminate against
outgroup and to build institutional practices that perpetuate that discrimination.
___+___= “isms”
hint: doblep
Prejudice + power
power vs. unequal power
The disproportionate ability to control other’s outcomes.
(dependence versus interdependence)
How does Power effect intergroup relations?
- Those with Power have more influence over when a given category will be relevant.
- Those with Power can create institutions, policies and rules.
Define the glass ceiling
advancement to high-status positions limited to you as an individual (women)
Glass cliff
Women are more likely than men to be promoted to (or hired for) risky positions likely to result in failure.
Glass elevator
the structural advantage that males possess in female-dominated occupations that tend to enhance their careers
Define sexualization..
Components to sexualization that set it apart from healthy sexuality.
- a person’s value comes only from his or her sexual appeal or behavior, to the exclusion of other characteristics;
- a person is held to a standard that equates physical attractiveness
(narrowly defined) with being sexy;
- sexuality is inappropriately imposed upon a person.
- a person is sexually objectified — that is, made into a thing for others’ sexual use, rather than seen as a person with the capacity for independent action and decision making
Ambivalent Sexism argues
That hostile and benevolent sexism are complementary (not conflicting) ideologies that present a resolution to the gender relationship paradox
Hostile sexism
are directed toward women who are perceived as challenging male dominance
Benevolent sexism
are directed toward women who comply with traditional gender norms
Hostile sexism
Negative views of women and anger at women who challenge patriarchy
Examples of hostile sexism
- “Women exaggerate problems they have at work.”
- “Many women are seeking special favours under the guise of equality.”
- “Women are too easily offended”
- “Once a woman gets a man to commit to her, she usually tries to put him on a tight leash.”
Hostile sexism (paternalism, gender differentiation, heterosexual intimacy)
Paternalism: dominance
Gender differentiation: competition
Intimacy: Temptress, Emasculating, Controlling, Sexual Objectification
Benevolent sexism (paternalism, gender differentiation, heterosexual intimacy)
Paternalism: protection + responsibility
Gender differentiation: exaggeration & complimentary
Intimacy: adoration, chivalry
Benevolent sexism
Appears positive, but places women in restricted roles & provide basis for control of women
Examples of benevolent sexism
Paternalism: (Women need protections & care from a man).
Gender Differentiation: (Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus)
Heterosexual Intimacy: (Chivalry)
Benevolent and hostile sexism are
Correlated
Benevolent sexism bestows affection on women who
embrace limited and traditional gender roles
Hostile sexism punishes women who
deviate from these roles and/or
challenge men’s position or threaten their masculinity.
What variables measured interest in personal power in the glass effect study?
- projected income
- educational goals
- interest in high-status jobs
- interest in leadership positions
What we’re the findings of the glass slipper effect?
No correlation between the implicit and explicit romantic fantasies
Glass effect study showed a correlation
Between implicit romantic fantasies with scores for personal power
The benevolent sexism & collective action study measured:
Willingness to engage in collective action to improve the position of women at university
Sexism is ____ in the places of “power” in our society.
Institutionalized
Sexism is ___ and ___ by the belief and actions of both men and women.
Supported and maintained
Some subtle ways sexism influences women are:
- glass cliff
- glass elevator
- Androcentrism
- sexualization
Define contact hypothesis
Interaction/contact between members of different groups can, under a prescribed set of conditions, lead to more positive intergroup attitudes and behaviors
What results from cross-group contact?
- Reduced Anxiety
- Re-evaluation of the Outgroup
- Re-evaluation of the Ingroup
- reduced prejudice
What we’re the interaction effects of the interpersonal closeness studies?
- With high closeness, the more contact the less prejudice
- With low closeness, no relation between contact and prejudice
- all correlational. NOT clear that friendship causes less prejudice
How does friendship/closeness explain the generalization of positive feelings from an individual outgroup member to attitudes towards the whole group?
Inclusion of the outgroup in the self
The self is ___ and ___. It
includes (is defined by) more than our unique personal qualities
Relational, collective
As people form close interpersonal
relationships, they include the other in ___ - they see themselves as, to some extent, possessing the other’s resources, perspectives & identities.
The self
Interpersonal al closeness leads to
Inclusion of the other in the self
Social identity salience
Friendly interaction in a variety of settings results in situational cues focusing attention on group memberships.
positive attitude change is (in part) a
by product of
changes in the content of the self.
Self-expansion motive
A basic desire (motivation) to increase one’s general sense of efficacy through the acquisition of resources, perspectives, and identities
One way to achieve self-expansion is:
by forming relationships with others that will allow for the inclusion of the other in the self.
Achieving self-expansion leads to
feelings of self-growth, self-efficacy and positive emotions.
Which measures were computed for the self-expansion activity?
- Positive Affect (Happy, Excited, Valued)
- Self-Expansion/Self-Growth (Expansive, Small (r), Growing)
- Overall Difference (Single Item)
- Mean (average) Group Differences
(ethnicity, language, religion, class)
Under the right circumstances, self-expansion motives should lead people ___ outgroup members.
Towards
What makes cross-group interactions fulfilling?
Feeling of closeness/ friendship + inclusion of the other in the self
Define collective action
When a person acts as a representative of their ingroup and engage in behaviours directed at improving the status or conditions of the entire
ingroup
Collective action is ___
Psychological
Collective actions is about the ___ of the action
Intention
Collective action is the ___ of identity
Level
Collective action is not about __ or ___
Numbers or specific form of action
Define resistance
The process and act of challenging the ingroup’s mistreatment or subordinate position in a given social system.
Changing the structural relations between groups
Whether resistance is “good” is an
Ethical judgment
2 example of micro-level processes
The social self (self-categorization), stereotyping
Intergroup relations
Is about perceiving and interaction with others in terms of their group memberships, but it’s also about how we know ourselves
Define self-concept/ identity
Who you think you are
The total content of your identity
One way to think about the self-concept is as a set of specific ___
Self-aspects
Define self-aspects
Things that you see as describing who you are.
The currently self is constructed from many ___ selves
Potentials
The self is ___ and ___
Multifaceted and diverse
The ___ is adaptive
Self
Levels of identity are categorized as:
Personal level, relational level, collective level
Personal level of identity
Those aspects of the self that make us
different from others (our individuating
characteristics)
Relational level of self-concept
Our connections to specific others (our
interpersonal relationships and our Roles)
Collective level of self-concept
Those aspects of the self that connect us to collections of others
(our group memberships
There 3 types of self-aspects
Personal, collective, relational
Some “I am” statements are not based on identity but rather are
Mood/ temporary emotional state (sad, angry) or physical states (tired, hungry)
what does the pattern of identity on your “Who are you” task mean?
- It could be about your tendency to self-define in a particular way.
- It could reflect broad cultural norms that you are familiar with (e.g., individualism/collectivism)
- It could reflect the current situations you are in or your current goals or motives.
- It could be the result of “measurement error” (e.g., that you simply got “stuck” at one level of identity while doing the task).
Intergroup relations is about ___ identities
Collective
Self-categorization is
Recognizing membership in a group
Ingroup identification is
Seeing yourself as a member of a group
Seeing oneself as typical is an example of
Self-stereotyping
Feeling connected and sharing values with a group is an example of
Solidarity/ belonging
Positive self-evaluation is an example of
Satisfaction/ pride
Why do we identify as being part of an ingroup?
- Belonging/Inclusion (Typicality/Solidarity/Meaning)
- Subjective Uncertainty Understanding/Security/Meaning)
- Optimal Distinctiveness (Inclusion and Differentiation/Pride)
- Self-Enhancement (Pride/Satisfaction).
- Self-Expansion (Increasing General Self-efficacy/Satisfaction)
What happens when we identify with an ingroup?
• group becomes basis of self-evaluation. Can feel sense of pride or shame
• Personal sacrifice & cooperation/solidarity, even in the face of obvious evidence people can blame themselves to stand up for their ingroup. If you blame the group, you lose a sense of strong identification.
o The group becomes the basis for attraction (who is valued/liked)
o The more one identifies with their ingroup, the more likely they are to follow the lead of others and think like member of their ingroups.
o Group norms become the basis for cross-group interactions & drive how we trust others as well
Stereotypes are a result of ____
Categorization
Definition of depersonalization
To exaggerate the similarity within groups
Confirmation bias
the tendency of people to favor information that confirms or strengthens their beliefs or values and is difficult to discard once affirmed
Stereotypes provide hypotheses that lead to ____.
Confirmation bias
Stereotypes emerge quickly without __
about (and/or ___ with) the outgroup.
Sufficient knowledge, experience
The content of stereotypes can be __ and ___.
Inaccurate, negative
Motivated stereotyping: Stereotypes provide explanations/ excuses for
• existing inequalities between groups
(stereotypes can justify the status quo).
• previous harm that “we” have done to “them”. (we hate those we harm)
• our own group’s privilege (positive self-stereotypes
Stereotypes can become __
self-perpetuating
Define the self-fulfilling prophecy theory
We interact with targets of stereotypes in a way that produces stereotype-consistent behaviour from the target.
The self-fulfilling prophecy is more than just ___
Experiences
Define Stereotype Threat
The possibility of confirming a negative stereotype about one’s ingroup can be threatening and can impair performance
The key requirement for stereotype threat effects to emerge are:
• Activation (making salient) of the relevant group membership (the relevant collective identity)
• Activation (making salient) of the relevant negative stereotype
• ST is not only about ___ ___
• ST can be
within a particular domain or context or activity.
• Chronic ST can lead to __ and __ of stereotyped domain/context/activity
immediate performance.
chronic
disinterest and avoidance
Stereotype threat is ___ ___ ___ in lower status (societally disadvantaged) groupp
NOT ONLY found
Stereotype Threat is ___ and ___ ___ – ST occurs only when & where the negative
stereotype is relevant and salient.
domain and situation specific
Stereotype Threat is only 1 of at least 4 reasons why someone might “confirm” a negative stereotypes about their group
- When the target Accepts/Internalizes the stereotype. “Maybe I am not good a math because I am a woman.”
- When the target Acquiesces to the stereotype (social pressure).
“I could do better at math, but I don’t want to upset my boyfriend/grandpa/boss/friends.
I have to act like a women should.” - Self-fulfilling Prophecy: Treatment by the holder of the stereotype produces the negative stereotyped behaviour by the target.
A male math teacher is less helpful (or too helpful) to female students because he believes they are not as competent at math. Thus, the female students do less well on the math test. - Stereotype Threat. “Women are as good at math as men and I have to show them that this is true. I really
need to do very well on this test.”
Reactance
Increased effort to disconfirm the stereotype can lead to better
performance because of better preparation, more focus/attention, greater effort
Exceptionalism:
Individual can come to see themselves as a special case and do well.
There are potential “antidotes”/ “buffers” for stereotype threat?
- Make counter-stereotypes salient (e.g., Davies et al. 2002)
- Provide counter-stereotype examples & role models (e.g., Shapiro et al., 2013)
- Self-affirmation Training/intervention (e.g., Shapiro et al., 2013)
- Value-affirmation Training/intervention (e.g., Taylor & Walton, 2011)
- Cultivating a “Growth Mindset” (e.g., Good, Aronson, and Inzlicht, 2003)
- Education – Simply knowing about it helps (e.g., Schmader et al.)
- Create “stereotype-safe environments” (e.g., Steele & Aronson, 1995)
The importance of Context (Salience/Activation):
Stereotypes are more likely to guide our thoughts and actions when there are cues in the environment that make those particular stereotypes relevant.
Stereotype “Boost”
•Positive stereotypes can be a source of confidence.
•Positive stereotypes can be evidence that effort will pay off in this domain.
•Positive Stereotypes can create additional pressure & choking
Positive Stereotypes can lead to __ and discounting of effort.
essentialization
Stereotypes are “beliefs about the shared ___
characteristics of members of a group
Stereotypes are
normal, automatic cognitive processes. They give
groups meaning and sometimes can be functional
What is wrong with stereotypes?
BUT….they can also go very wrong, because…
•They limit attention to individuating information that can often be more
useful than stereotypes.
•They can be inaccurate and not shared by the other group.
•They can be inaccurate and negative.
•They can be self-perpetuating.
Define prejudice
•A judgment or evaluation of a group and its members. (Some definitions include emotions and feelings associated with that judgment.)
Ambivalent Prejudice
Judgements of the same group can be both positive and negative (e.g., Nice but Dumb
