Final Exam Flashcards
What is Feedback?
A generic term that describes information a person receives about the performance of a skill during or after the performance.
What are the 2 Categories of Feedback?
- Task-intrinsic feedback (sensory)
- Augmented feedback (task-extrinsic)
What is Task-Intrinsic Feedback?
Performance-related sensory information that is naturally available to the performer
-Visual, Auditory, Tactile, Proprioceptive
What is Augmented Feedback?
Information the person receives about a performance from sources external to him/herself (technology, coach, rehab specialist)
The information adds to or enhances the task-intrinsic information
What are the 2 Types of Augmented Feedback?
Knowledge of Results (KR)
-Performance-related information about the outcome of the performance
Knowledge of Performance (KP)
-Performance-related information about the movement characteristics that led to the outcome of the performance
How Essential is Augmented Feedback for Skill Learning?
It can be essential for skill learning
It can hinder or slow skill learning
What are the 3 situations where Augmented Feedback can be Essential or Learning?
Critical task-intrinsic feedback is not available (obstructed view)
Person is not capable of detecting the critical task-intrinsic feedback (injury)
Person is not capable of interpreting the critical task-intrinsic feedback (lack of experience)
What are the 3 situations where Augmented Feedback can Hinder Learning?
Erroneous (wrong, inaccurate) KR or KP
Concurrent presentation of KP (we get info about how we’re moving while we’re doing it)
KR or KP presented too frequently
What are the 2 issues of Content of Augmented Feedback?
Errors vs correct aspects of performance
KR vs KP (both provide valuable info)
What is Errors vs correct aspects of performance?
Error-related info: Good for action goal achievement goal
“Correct”: Motivation role
Combine both for needs of the learner
What is KR beneficial to?
Confirm subjective assessment of task-intrinsic feedback
Determine performance outcome when task-intrinsic feedback is not available
Motivate the person to continue
Establish a “discovery learning” practice strategy
What is KP beneficial to?
Learn skills with specified movements–the outcome is assessed by movement characteristics (gymnastics, diving)
Improve specific movements or correct specific movement errors
Learn to activate specific muscles
Facilitate learning when KR is redundant with task-intrinsic feedback
What is Descriptive KP?
Descriptive KP = KP describes error
Later stages of learning – Descriptive preferred
What is Prescriptive KP?
Prescriptive KP = KP describes error and prescribes how to do it
Initial stage of learning – Prescriptive preferred
How does Video Replay relate to the stage of learning?
Initial stage:
-Provide attention-directing or error-correction cues
Later stages:
-Some assistance may be needed, but attention-directing cues may help
What are the 3 issues of the Timing of Augmented Feedback?
Concurrent & terminal augmented feedback
-Concurrent: augmented feedback available during the performance of a skill
-Terminal: augmented feedback available after the performance of a skill
Time intervals related to terminal augmented feedback
Frequency concerns
What are Research-Based Conclusions on Concurrent Augmented Feedback?
Concurrent augmented feedback can:
-Facilitate the learning of skills in which critical task-intrinsic feedback is difficult to interpret
-Learning to activate specific muscles
-Learning to produce a specific movement force
-Hinder or slow the learning of skills by leading to a dependency on the feedback
What are the effects of the KR-Delay Interval?
Interval length
-Minimum length needed for augmented feedback to be effective
-No evidence for a maximum length
-Performance poorer without the feedback than with it
Activity during the interval
-Most have no effect
-Some hinder learning
-Ex. Similar learning processes required for both
-Some beneficial for learning
-Ex. subjective error estimation
What are the effects of the Post-KR Interval?
Interval length
-Minimum length needed for augmented feedback to be effective
-No evidence for a maximum length
Activity during the interval
-Most have no effect
-Some hinder learning
-Ex. similar learning processes required for both
-Some beneficial for learning
-Ex. problem-solving activity
What are the 2 Views of Frequency of Presenting Augmented Feedback?
Traditional view = Augmented feedback for every trial (100% frequency) is best for learning
Current view = Less than 100% frequency is best for learning
Why is Less Than 100% Frequency of Augmented Feedback Better for Learning?
Increases problem-solving activity
-Less frequency allows person to more actively use their own problem solving strategies
-100% frequency directs problem-solving activity from the instructor’s point of view
Guidance hypothesis
-Beneficial performance effects of receiving augmented feedback on every practice trial become negative learning effects
What are the 4 Techniques that Reduce Augmented Feedback Frequency?
- Fading Technique
- Performance Bandwidth Technique
- Learner Requested Feedback Technique
- Summary Technique
What is Fading Technique?
First described in experiment by Winstein & Schmidt (1990)
Systematically reduced KR frequency from every trial to 2 per 8 trials
“Fading” technique led to better learning than receiving KR every trial
What is Performance Bandwidth Technique?
Leads to a less than 100% frequency
Results in better learning than KR/KP every trial
What is Learner Requested Feedback Technique?
KR/KP given only when learner requests it
Leads to a less than 100% frequency
Results in better learning than KR/KP every trial
What is Summary Technique?
KR/KP given for a set of trials (ex. Every 5 trials)
Amount of KR/KP is same as 100% frequency, but given less frequently during a practice session
Results in better learning than KR/KP every trial
What is Whole Practice?
A practice strategy that involves practicing a skill as a whole (in its entirety)
What is Part Practice?
A practice strategy that involves practicing parts of a skill
How do you base the decision to use a whole or part practice strategy?
On the complexity and organization characteristics of the skill
What is Complexity?
Number of component parts of a skill – range from low (one) to high (many)
What is Organization?
Relationship between parts of a skill – range from low (independent) to high (interdependent)
When do you use Whole Practice Strategy?
Use for skills with few parts &/Or Interdependency among parts
When do you use Part Practice Strategy?
Use for skills with independent parts
What are the benefits of Whole Practice Strategy?
Provides opportunity to perform all the spatial-temporal coordination requirements of the skill
What are the benefits of Part Practice Strategy?
Provides opportunity to focus attention to a specific component or feature of the skill.
What is Fractionization?
A part practice strategy
Relates to skills that require asymmetric bimanual coordination
3 step practice sequence
What is the 3 Step Practice Sequence?
Practice with both hands with more difficult part
Practice other hand
Practice with both hands performing simultaneously
What is Segmentation?
A part practice strategy
Sometimes called: Progressive Part Method
Takes advantage of benefits of both part & whole practice strategies
What is the Practice Procedure for Segmentation?
Practice 1st component part of a skill
Then practice 2nd part
Then practice the 2 parts combined
Repeat above until all parts combined this way
What is Simplification
A part practice strategy
Reduce skill difficulty by practicing an easier variation of the skill before practicing the skill itself
What are some examples of Simplification Method?
Reduce object difficulty
Reduce attention demands without changing action goal
Reduce rhythmic difficulty for skills requiring specific rhythmic characteristics
Reduce speed demands for speed-accuracy skills
What was Herbert, Landin, & Solomon’s Research about?
University students in a beginning tennis class learning to serve
Three practice strategies were used: Whole practice, Simplification practice (easy to difficulty whole practice), and Progressive part practice (segmentation)
Results: Poor performance of low-skilled students who experienced whole practice strategy
How can you incorporate Part Practice Strategy while Performing the Whole Skill?
Apply the “momentary intentions” attention allocation strategy
i.e. Direct attention focus to a specific part of the skill while performing the skill
What is happening during Demonstration?
Observational Learning: Learning of a skill that results from the direct observation of a person (or people) performing, or learning to perform a skill
Why Study Demonstration?
Applied Reason: Demonstration is one of the most commonly used instructional strategies in skill learning contexts
Theoretical Reason: We can gain insight into the role of vision in the control of coordinated action and the learning of motor skills
What are the 2 types of demonstration research?
Visual Perception of Motion
-Evidence from the use of the point-light technique
-People quickly recognize the different gaits without seeing the entire body in motion
Movement Analysis of Novices
-Schoenfelder-Zohdi Experiment
-Compared beginners who observed wither a skilled model or no model
-Observing a model led to faster acquisition of the optimal movement pattern
What do you see when a motor skill is being demonstrated?
The pattern of movement used by the performer to achieve the action goal
Gentile’s initial stage of learning goal: acquire a movement coordination pattern
The “invariant characteristics” of the GMP
The “order parameters” of a coordinated movement pattern (dynamic pattern theory)
Is Demonstration the Most Effective means of Instruction for Motor Skill Learning?
Demonstration is most effective when the skill requires learning a NEW coordination pattern
Can a Beginner Benefit from Observing Other Beginners?
Yes, research evidence from Hebert & Landin (1994)
Does Demonstration Fequency & Timing Influence Skill Learning?
Limited research evidence, but what we have indicates a yes answer
When can Auditory Modeling be more effective than Visual Modeling?
When learning a timing characteristic of a skill (rhythm, movement time)
What should you Consider when giving Verbal Instructions?
- Limited attention capacity
- Influence on action goal achievement strategy
- Where instructions focus the person’s conscious attention when performing the skill
Where should instructions tell a person to focus their attention when performing a skill?
Internal focus of attention: body/limb movement
External focus of attention: movement effects
What kind of focus of attention supports Open & Closed skills?
External focus of attention
What should instructions direct attention to?
Environmental context features that contain the most relevant info for performing the appropriate action
Learner does not need to be able to verbally describe the environmental context info they use to perform the skill (implicit learning)
What is the difference between Internal Focus & External Focus?
Internal focus results in a conscious attempt to control movements, which interferes with automatic motor control processes
External focus of attention allows the motor system to self-organize naturally “unconstrained” by the conscious attention to control movements
What is the purpose of Movement Screens?
To assess mobility, range of motion, & asymmetries
What is the Principle of the Practice-Test Relationship?
The more the practice conditions and the test conditions have in common, the better the test performance will be
What is Practice Variability?
The inclusion in practice of a variety of movement and/or performance context characteristics related to performing a skill
What are Movement & Context Characteristics that can be varied in Practice?
Skill variations that will be required in “test” conditions
Physical context in which the skill is performed
Situation in which the skill occurs
What does Gentile’s Stages of Learning Model Predict about what to vary in Practice?
Closed skills
-Vary non-regulatory conditions with no inter trial variability of regulatory conditions
-Vary regulatory & non regulatory conditions with inter trial variability of regulatory conditions
Open Skills
-Vary regulatory & non regulatory conditions
What are the options for Organizing Variable Practice?
Practice all trials of each variation in its own block of practice trials
Practice all trials of each variation randomly
What is Contextual Interference and its Effect?
Contextual Interference: Interference that results from practicing skills in the context of a practice session
Contextual Interference Effect: A learning phenomenon in which more interference during practice leads to better learning than less interference
What is the Continuum of Contextual Interference?
A continuum of the amount of interference created by practicing a variety of skills within the context of practice; with practice schedules associated with each amount of interference.
What are the typical results of Contextual Interference Effect Experiments?
Low CI practice schedules perform better during practice than High CI schedules
High CI practice schedules perform better on transfer tests than Low CI schedules (i.e result in better learning)
Why does the Contextual Interference Effect Occur?
2 Explanations: Both emphasize importance of increased amount of cognitive effort.
Elaboration Hypothesis: Random practice encourages the learner to use multiple strategies to achieve action goal of each skill variation & make comparisons among the skill variations during practice
Action Plan Reconstruction Hypothesis: Random practice encourages the learner to increase about of problem solving from trial-to-trial because of forgetting from one trial of skill variation to the next
What is Massed Practice & Distributed Practice
Massed: Longer & Fewer, and none to very short between trial rest intervals
Distributed: Shorter & More, and longer than massed practice between trial rest intervals
What does Research say about Length & Frequency of Practice Sessions?
Distributed schedules are better for learning than massed schedules
i.e. shorter and more sessions are better than longer and fewer sessions
Why is Distributed Practice Better?
- Fatigue
- Cognitive effort
- Memory consolidation
How much rest should you provide a learner between repetitions of practice?
For Continuous motor skills: length of rest interval should be greater than the time it takes to perform the task
For Discrete motor skills: short rest intervals between repetitions are better for learning
