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Honors Biology S2 > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

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1
Q

Dominant Trait

A

A variant of a gene on a chromosome that is expressed and can mask the effect of a different variant of the same gene when a recessive on the other copy of the chromosome.

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2
Q

Recessive Trait

A

A variant of a gene on a chromosome that is ONLY expressed when both variants of a gene on the connected alleles are recessive.

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3
Q

Variation

A

Change in characteristics between individual organisms in the same species.

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4
Q

Heredity

A

Genetic traits passed from one generation to the next generation (parents to children).

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5
Q

Gene

A

The basic unit of heredity passed from parent to child. Genes are made up of sequences of DNA and are arranged, one after another, at specific locations on chromosomes.

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6
Q

Allele

A

One of two or more versions of a genetic sequence at a particular region on a chromosome. An individual inherits two alleles for each gene, one from each parent. (ttTtTT PpPP LlLL AAAaaa)

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7
Q

Genotype

A

The genetic makeup (genes) of an organism.

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8
Q

Phenotype

A

The observable traits of a organism that are the product of its genotype interacting with the environment.

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9
Q

Punnett Square

A

Square diagram used to possible genotypes (phenotypes) of an offspring arising from a particular cross or breeding event.

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10
Q

Gamete

A

A gamete is a reproductive cell of an animal or plant. In animals, female gametes are called ova or egg cells, and male gametes are called sperm. Ova and sperm are haploid cells, with each cell carrying only one copy of each chromosome.

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11
Q

Chromosome

A

Chromosomes are tight structures made up of DNA and protein that carry the genomic information from cell to cell. In plants and animals (including humans), chromosomes reside in the nucleus of cells.

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12
Q

Sex Chromosome

A

A sex chromosome is a type of chromosome involved in sex determination. Humans and most other mammals have two sex chromosomes, X and Y, that in combination determine the sex of an individual. Females have two X chromosomes in their cells, while males have one X and one Y.

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13
Q

Protein and DNA

A

One molecule of DNA and one protein make up one chromosome. Chromosomes are different sizes, and proteins called histones allow them to pack up small enough to fit in a nucleus.

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14
Q

Homologous Chromosome

A

One of a pair of chromosomes. A homologous pair consists of one paternal and one maternal chromosome. Humans have 46 chromosomes. Females have 23 homologous chromosomes (22 + XX) and males have 22 (22 + XY).

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15
Q

Haploid Cell

A

Haploid cells are cells with only a single set of chromosomes. Sexually reproducing organisms are diploid (having two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent). In humans, only the egg and sperm cells are haploid.

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16
Q

Diploid Cell

A

A diploid cell has two complete sets of chromosomes (one from each parent). In humans, all cells are diploid except for sperm and egg cells.

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17
Q

Nondisjunction

A

Nondisjunction occurs when chromosomes do not separate properly during cell division. This produces cells with imbalanced chromosome numbers. This causes problems in cell function because a cell cannot function normally without the correct chromosome amount.

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18
Q

Pedigree

A

A pedigree is a diagram that shows the occurrence and appearance of phenotypes of a particular gene or organism and its ancestors from one generation to the next.

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19
Q

Monohybrid Cross

A

A Monohybrid cross is a type of genetic cross between two individuals with homozygous genotypes of a single character or trait, often resulting in an opposite phenotype. e.g. TT x tt = Tt

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20
Q

Dihybrid Cross

A

Dihybrid cross is a cross between two individuals with two observed traits that are controlled by two distinct genes. This is where you use FOIL, because there are two traits involved, e.g. RrYy x RrYy

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21
Q

Incomplete Dominance

A

Where two parent traits result in an offspring with a crossing of both alleles. e.g. Children born with semi-curly or wavy hair are an example of individuals exhibiting incomplete dominance because the crossing of parents alleles both straight and curly hairs to produce such offspring.

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22
Q

Codominance

A

Codominance occurs when two alleles are expressed separately and both yield phenotypes together.

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23
Q

Lethal dominance

A

lethal dominance is when only one allele needs to be present in an organism to be fatal.

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24
Q

Homozygous dominant genotype

A

Two dominant alleles (AA)

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25
Q

Heterozygous Genotype

A

One dominant allele and one recessive allele (Aa)

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26
Q

Homozygous recessive

A

Two recessive alleles (aa)

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27
Q

Polygenic Trait

A

Traits controlled by multiple genes

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28
Q

Karyotype

A

The pairing and ordering of chromosomes

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29
Q

How to determine gender assigned at birth (biological sex)

A

A human being typically has 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell (23 pairs = 46 total chromosomes). One of these pairs is called the sex chromosomes (X and Y). They determine if you will be male or female. If you are male, you have an XY pair. If you are female, you have an XX pair

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30
Q

Chromosome number vs. total chromosomes

A

In any given species, chromosomes can be identified by their number, size, centromere position, and banding pattern. We know human beings typically have 22 autosomes and one sex chromosome or 23 total chromosomes.

31
Q

What is the purpose of meiosis

A

The purpose of meiosis is to make a haploid child cells from a diploid parent cell.

32
Q

How to read a pedigree

A
33
Q

DNA

A

The molecules inside the nucleus of cells that carry genetic information and pass it from one generation to the next.

34
Q

Atom

A

Basic (and smallest) unit of any element

35
Q

Molecule

A

A group of bonded atoms.

36
Q

Why do we say DNA is “antiparallel”?

A

DNA is made up of two strands. Each strand has a backbone made up of alternating sugars and phosphate groups. The two strands are linked by complementary nitrogenous bases. The strands are oriented in opposite directions, making the structure “antiparallel”.

37
Q

Enzyme

A

Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions

38
Q

What are four differences between RNA and DNA?

A
  1. DNA has thymine. RNA has uracil.
  2. DNA has two strands. RNA has one.
  3. DNA stores genetic information RNA carries out instructions encoded in DNA.
  4. DNA has Deoxyribose. RNA has ribose.
39
Q

What is DNA’s structure and what makes up DNA?

A

DNA is a nucleic acid made up of nucleotides. The nucleotides are joined into long strands by polypeptide bonds.

40
Q

What is Chargaff’s Rule?

A

In DNA, the amount of adenine is equal to the amount of thymine. The amount cytosine is equal to the amount of guanine.

41
Q

What are base pairs in DNA?

A

Base pairs, or nucleotides, hold the two strands of DNA together with hydrogen bonds, like rungs on a ladder. There are four nucleotides, or bases, in DNA: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). These bases form specific pairs (A with T, and G with C).

42
Q

What are the four steps of DNA replication?

A

1)The cell receives the signal to replicate and helicase unzips one end of the DNA to prepare it to divide.
2)A DNA polymerase enzymes binds to each of the strands of DNA - moving from the 5 prime phosphate to the 3 prime end deoxyribose.
3) DNA polymerase follows the helicase and adds complimentary base pairs (nucleotides) to the DNA molecules.
4)DNA polymerase detaches from the DNA molecules

43
Q

Why is DNA replication considered semi-conservative?

A

DNA replication is semi-conservative because DNA replication results in one new strand and one original strand.

44
Q

What four enzymes are involved in DNA replication?

(Hairy Popsicle Dog Lick)

A
  1. helicase
  2. primase
  3. DNA polymerase
  4. ligase.
45
Q

What does helicase do in DNA replication?

A

Unwinds the double helix of DNA by breaking hydrogen bonds

46
Q

What does primase do in DNA replication?

A

RNA primase primes the leading and lagging strands of DNA.

47
Q

Why does DNA polymerase do in DNA replication?

A

DNA polymerase Adds daughter nucleotides on the parent strands

48
Q

What does ligase do in DNA replication?

A

In DNA replication, ligase’s job is to join together fragments of newly synthesized DNA to form a seamless strand

49
Q

Poop

A

Canoe

50
Q

What are the three types of RNA?

A
  1. messenger RNA (mRNA),
  2. transfer RNA (tRNA)
  3. ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
51
Q

How are amino acids coded in RNA?

A

Amino acids are coded in RNA with a possible combination of 3 letters in any order. (e.g. UGG)

52
Q

What is RNA transcription?

A

Transcription is the process of copying DNA’s instructions for protein building to an RNA molecule. Transcription works like passing a note in class. RNA copies the DNA’s message so it can be passed out of a cell’s nucleus.

53
Q

How does RNA transcription start?

A

Transcription starts with the opening and unwinding of a small portion of the DNA double helix.

54
Q

What are substitution mutuations?

A

A substitution mutation is a type of replication error during DNA replication which places the wrong nucleotide or sequence of nucleotides in the wrong position.

55
Q

What are the three types of genetic mutuations?

A
  1. substitution
  2. insertion
  3. deletion
56
Q

What does evolution mean in biology?

A

In biology, evolution is the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations and relies on the process of natural selection.

57
Q

What is natural selection?

A

The process by which organisms with traits most suited for their environment survive and are able to create more offspring.

58
Q

Adaptation

A

Any heritable characteristic increasing an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce in its environment.

59
Q

What is comparative anatomy?

A

Comparative anatomy is the comparative study of the body structures of different species of animals in order to understand the adaptive changes they have undergone in the course of evolution from common ancestors.

60
Q

What are homologous structures?

A

Homologous structures are organs or skeletal elements of animals and organisms that, by virtue of their similarity, suggest their connection to a common ancestor. These structures do not have to look exactly the same, or have the same function. The most important part, as hinted by their name, is that they are structurally similar.

61
Q

What is an embryo?

A

An embryo is an unhatched or unborn offspring.

62
Q

Vestigial structure

A

A part of an organism no longer used but still structurally present.

63
Q

Analogous structures

A

Analogous structures are features of different species that are similar in function but not necessarily in structure and which do not derive from a common ancestral feature (compare to homologous structures) and which evolved in response to a similar environmental challenge.

64
Q

Species

A

A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

65
Q

Speciation

A

The process of evolving into a distinct species.

66
Q

What is a gene pool?

A

A gene pool refers to all genotypes and phenotypes present in a population.

67
Q

What is reproductive isolation?

A

Reproductive isolation is when a population splits into two or more distinct groups that can no longer interbreed.

68
Q

How does geographic isolation affect a population’s gene pool?

A

When a species’ gene pool is limited by geographic isolation, a species can only reproduce with local organisms.

69
Q

What is some anatomical evidence of biological evolution?

A

Many species share similar physical features because the feature was present in a common ancestor (homologous structures).

70
Q

How does the DNA molecule give us evidence of molecular evolution?

A

By sequencing the DNA of different species, we can detect change over time.

71
Q

How does an embryo provide evidence of biological evolution?

A

Embryos of different species can have similarities that are not visible when the organisms are fully formed. Many of these similarities are homologous features. These features provide evidence that the species are related through evolution.

72
Q

How does a guy read a cladogram?

A

He gets comfortable. After a quick glance over his shoulder to make sure that guy isn’t back, he chews the wood off of his pencil. Slowly, he inhales…

and finds the starting point of the cladogram. It’s on the bottom left of the strangely warm piece of leather. As his eyes follow the charred line up, he imagines time passing him by.

Suddenly, he is stopped by a node. It’s the first evolution of a characteristic. The spotted wumba gronk has developed teeth! He returns to the main line only to progress to another node and a node off of that. Organisms evolve off of other organisms with newly evolved characteristics.

Finally, he finds his fellow organisms. There his species is, at the very end of a node splitting from a node splitting from a node. It’s very amazing. The guy sees teeth, six arms, two heads, and flying butt.

And it all started with that first node.

Larger groups of animals have a common ancestor further back in time. If you start at the first node of a cladogram, all of the animals that branch off after that node have the characteristic indicated by the first node in common

73
Q

How does a guy create a cladogram?

A

He fights an eagle.
He bathes in milk.
He stretches all of his toes out really wide.
Then he
1.Organises selected organisms according to defined characteristics
2.Sequentially orders organisms according to shared characteristics

74
Q

corn

A

dog

Honors Biology S2 (1 decks)

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