Final Exam Flashcards
Respondent Conditioning
- Automatic responses to prior stimuli
- Referred to as reflexive or involuntary
- Usually involves smooth muscles and glands that control our gastrointestinal tract and blood vessels
- Is said to be elicited by prior stimuli
Operant Conditioning
- Controlled by consequences
- Referred to as voluntary behavior
- Usually involves skeletal muscles
- Is said to be emitted by an individual
Reinforcement
A consequence after a behavior that makes it more likely it will happen again
Punishment
A consequence after a behavior that makes it less likely to happen again
Primary Reinforcer
Innate reinforcing qualities, not learned
• ex: food, touch, and shelter
Secondary Reinforcer
Associated with a primary reinforcer
• ex: give dog a treat then say good boy
Back-up Reinforcer
Reward in exchange for earned tokens
• In a token economy
Generalized Reinforcer
A stimulus that exerts a reinforcing effect because it has been associated with reinforcing stimuli
• Stickers reinforce behavior when they add up to a prize
What are the 5 categories of reinforcers
CAMPS
• Consumables
• Activities
• Manipulatives
• Possessions
• Social Reinforcers
Consumables
Items that one can eat or drink
• Candy, cookies, fruit, and beverages
Activities
Opportunities to watch TV, look at a picture book, or stare out of a window
Manipulatives
Play with a favorite toy, build with LEGOs, color or paint, ride a bicycle, or go on the internet
Possessions
Sit in one’s favorite chair, wear a favorite shirt or dress, have a private room or enjoy some other item that one can possess (at least temporarily)
Social Reinforcers
Affectionate pats and hugs, praise, nods, smiles, and even a simple glance or other indication of social attention
Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA)
Identification of relationships applicable to target behaviors
• Identifies situations in which behavior is present
• Identified consequences that are maintaining the problem behavior
• Allows you to plan an intervention
• Make a plan -> Consider positive behavior and interventions
Making a behavior intervention plan (FBA)
• Define target behavior and function of behavior
• Includes baseline measure of issue behavior, frequency, duration, settings, etc.
• Define objective and goals, who will carry out the plan
• Intervention -> Alter antecedent events, teach adaptive behaviors, provide consequences and reinforcements
Functional Analysis (FA)
Experimenting with what you think is leading to the behavior
• Manipulate the environment ahead of time
Describe indirect methods of behavior assessment
• Interviews = Interviewing people that are important to the situation
• Questionnaires = Broad overview: Not specific to what is occurring in the situation
• Role-playing
• Data from referring source
• Client self-monitoring
Describe direct methods of behavioral assessment
• Narrative Recording
• Event Recording
• Interval Recording
• Time Sampling
Narrative Recording
• Comprehensive description of the child’s natural behavior
• Going in and observing + writing down, what happens
• Anecdotal recording
- Write down things that seem relevant and of interest
- Not really sure what is controlling the behavior at this point
• Running recording
- Writing down everything that happens
- Cannot tend to all behaviors all the time
Event Recording
• Record each time the behavior occurs
• Good for behaviors that have clear-cut beginnings and endings
• Not good for behaviors that have high frequencies
- Requires you to pay attention to doing the behavior
• Figure out when you are going to observe and for how long you are going to observe
• Have control of decision making
Interval Recording
• Look for behavior within specified intervals of time
• Number of times you were going to observe the child
• Looking for a frequency count
• Record specific aspects of behavior within specified intervals of time
• Record presence or absence of behavior
• Divide observation period into specific intervals
• Partial Interval: If behavior occurs once at all, during the interval, yes or no
• Whole Interval: If behavior was present at the start and end of interval, if it lasts the entire time
• Momentary Time Interval: If the behavior is at the end of interval
• Variable Inter-Occasion Interval: Pre-selected random time intervals
Time Sampling
• A type of interval recording
• Takes random times throughout the day to see if there is a comparison
• This is time efficient
• You can go in the morning, late morning, and early afternoon and compare the frequency of behavior during the different times
• Compare frequency of behavior over intervals of different times
Direct Method of Behavioral Assessment
Real-time information about the behavior, objective, but assessor may influence behavior
Advantages of Direct Methods of Behavioral Assessment
More objective
Disadvantages of Direct Methods of Behavioral Assessment
• Time consuming
• Requires appropriate training
• Only for behaviors you can directly observe (overt behaviors)
Indirect Methods of Behavioral Assessment
Can get information from multiple sources (parent, teacher, etc.), may be biased due to those filling them out having their own opinions, and might be inaccurate since people could not understand what they are being asked
Advantages of Indirect Methods of Behavioral Assessment
• Convenient
• Covert behaviors (may be something that you cannot observe or can be so subtle that you cannot pick up on)
Disadvantages of Indirect Methods of Behavioral Assessment
• Not being able to observe the behavior yourself
• Potentially inaccurate
• Can be biased information
Define the six aspects of behavior that can be recorded
• Topography
• Frequency (or rate of behavior)
• Duration
• Intensity (also known as magnitude or force of a response)
• Stimulus Control
• Latency (often called reaction time)
Topography
Specific moments involved in making the response
Frequency
Number of instances of a behavior that occur in a given period of time
• Or RATE OF BEHAVIOR
Duration
Length of time from the beginning to the end of an episode of behavior
Intensity
• How strong the behavior is
• Assessments of intensity, often utilize instrumentation
• Also known as MAGNITUDE or FORCE OF A RESPONSE
Stimulus Control
• Degree of correlation between the occurrence of a given event and a response quickly following that event
Latency
Time between the occurrence of a particular event or cue and the start of that behavior
• Often called REACTION TIME
What are the sources of unreliability in observation systems?
• Observer Bias
• Observer Drift
• Difficulties in Coding Behavior
• Child Reactivity
Observer Bias
• Observer may be biased in a way that influenced the way they record behavior
• Leniency effect
- Not being strict
- Observer may be more tolerant of behaviors than other people are
- May already have some biases towards the individual
• Primacy effect
- Influenced by your first impressions (either positive or negative)
Observer Drift
• Lose your attention or motivation
• Observer can get tired
Difficulties in Coding Behavior
• If you miss or forget to record something
• Misunderstanding of how to record something
Child Reactivity
Child knows they are being observed and they can change their behavior
Procedures to Reduce Unreliability:
• Clear and precise definitions
• Systematic and precise rules for observation
• Time intervals that are not excessively long
• Training observers
• Periodic checks of observers
Procedures to Reduce Child Reactivity:
• Be as neutral as possible
• Position self outside of traffic flow
• Shift attention to other children
• Enter at natural breaks
Premack Principle
High probability behavior contingent upon low probability behavior
Deprivation
Person has not experienced the reinforcer
• Only give candy when reinforcing
• Reccomended to do this before starting intervention
Satiation
Reinforcer is no longer reinforcing and it has lost its effect
• Reinforcement menus
- Selection of things they can get and are of interest
Different Schedules of Reinforcement
• Fixed Ratio (FR)
• Variable Ratio (VR)
• Fixed Interval (FI)
• Variable Interval (VI)
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Certain number of behaviors equals reward
• Number of responses
• Set to the same number every time
• Post-reinforcement pause
- After you get the reinforcement
- Need time to engage in the reinforcer
• Ratio Strain
- Sometimes you might go too far
- Less likely to happen in variable ratio
Variable Ratio (VR)
Random numbers of behaviors equals reward (every third time, etc.)
• Little post-reinforcement pause
• Ratio strain less likely to happen
• High resistance to extinction
- Do not know when reinforcement is coming
Fixed Interval (FI)
Reward given after certain time interval
• Responding increase through interval
• Post-reinforcement pause
• Could be five minutes consistently or can change
Variable Interval (VI)
Reward given after random period of time when behavior is exhibited
• Moderate steady rate
• Little or no post-reinforcement pause
Advantages/Disadvantages of Fixed Ratio
Post-reinforcement pause and ratio strain
Advantages/Disadvantages of Variable Ratio
• Little post-reinforcement pause or ratio strain
• High resistance to extinction
Advantages/Disadvantages of Fixed Interval
• Responding increases through interval
• Post-reinforcement pause
Advantages/Disadvantages of Variable Interval
Moderate steady rate, little post-reinforcement pause
Duration Schedule (Fixed or Variable)
Based on length of time behavior is displayed
• Ex: Sitting in a chair for 10 minutes
Fixed-Duration (FD)
• Engage in behavior for specified length of time
• Post-reinforcement pause
Variable-Duration (VD)
• Variable length of time required
• Little or no post-reinforcement pause
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different schedules of reinforcement: Concurrent Schedule
• Different behaviors reinforced on different schedules
• Matching law
- Reinforcement of different behaviors
- Weighing different options we have available to us
• Response chosen depends on:
- Types of schedules operation
- Immediacy
> Will you get it right away or will you have to wait for it
> Typically, we like immediate satisfaction
- Magnitude
> How important is that reinforcer for you
- Effort required
> Effort that is required to engage in the behavior
> We rather do easy things for immediate satisfaction
> Willing to put in work for a bigger goal
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different schedules of reinforcement: Intermittent Schedule
Some instances of behavior are reinforced but not all
• Advantages:
> Reinforcer is effective longer
> Longer to extinguish behavior
> Promotes more consistent performance
> Promotes transfer to natural environment
• Disadvantages:
> Inconsistent use of extinction
> People do not know when the reinforcement is coming
Ratio Strain
When level of expected behavior goes up too much (too quickly)
• Ex: you go from 2 correct math problems to 8
• Sometimes you might go too far
• Less likely to happen in variable-ratio
Post-Reinforcement Pause
A pause in response after the delivery of a reinforcer
• Mostly in fixed schedules
• After you get the reinforcer you need time to engage with it
Differential Ratio of Low Rates (DRL)
Lower the rate of behavior by reinforcing fewer instances of behavior, or longer amounts of time between instances
• Behavior is acceptable but not at its current rate
• E.g., going from drinking 8 cups of coffee a day to 3
• Okay to do things sometimes but not at the level they are being done at now
• Can be used for nondangerous unwanted behaviors
> Nailbiting
Differential Reinforcement of Zero Responding (DRO)
Reinforcement contingent on the absence of a problem
• Used for dangerous unwanted behaviors
> Fighting, cursing
Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Responding (DRI)
Reinforce a more appropriate behavior for the situation
• Sleeping in class, not following directions
Time-Out (including appropriate use of TO)
Time away from positive reinforcement (can be exclusionary or not)
• TO from positive reinforcement
> Exclusionary and non-exclusionary
• Applied calmly and objectively
• 1 min per child’s age is recommended
• Pre-TO warning
• Couple with positive reinforcement for alternative behavior
• Has to be consistent
Response Cost
Conditioned reinforcers (candy, tokens) are withdrawn to suppress a response
Discuss factors that influence the effectiveness of punishment
• Conditions of a desirable alternative behavior
• Cause for the undesirable behavior
• The punishing stimulus
• Minimize causes for undesirable behavior (environment)
• Selection and delivery of punisher (time out vs. response cost)
• Rules for punishment
Factors influencing the effectiveness of punishment: Cause for the undesirable behavior
• Identify and eliminate the current discriminative stimulus for the undesirable behavior
• Identify and eliminate existing reinforcers that are maintaining the undesirable behavior
Factors influencing the effectiveness of punishment: The punishing stimulus
• Important that the punishment is effective
• The more intense or strong the punishing stimulus, the more effective it will be in decreasing the undesirable behavior
• The intensity of the punisher that is needed to be effective depends on the success in minimizing the causes of the undesirable behavior while maximizing the conditions for a desirable alternative behavior
Factors influencing the effectiveness of punishment: Selection & Delivery of Punisher (TO vs. Response Cost)
• The punisher should be presented immediately following the undesirable behavior
• The punisher should be presented following every instance of the undesirable behavior
• The delivery of the punisher should not be paired with positive reinforcement
• The person administering the punisher should remain calm when doing so
Factors influencing the effectiveness of punishment: Rules for Punishment
• Adding rules to a punishment procedure often helps to decrease the undesirable behavior and increase the desirable alternative behavior more quickly
Discuss the factors that influence the effectiveness of extinction
• Control reinforcers
• Positive reinforcement for alternative behavior
• Setting considerations
• Rules
• Schedule of reinforcement
Reasons why extinction might not work
• Wrong reinforcer is withheld
• Presence of intermittent reinforcement
• Alternative behavior is not strengthened
Extinction Burst
Unwanted behavior reappears or increases before going back down
Spontaneous Recovery
Reemergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response
• May happen again after a period of behavior not occurring
Extinction
If a previously reinforced behavior is not followed by a reinforcer, the behavior is likely to decrease
•Iif something is on a continuous schedule of reinforcement, it is easier to extinguish it because you learn faster that the reinforcement is not coming
Shaping
Successive reinforcement of clothes, approximations and extinguishing of preceding approximations of the behavior
• Gradual way of changing a behavior
Fading
Response eventually occurs to a partially changed or a completely new stimulus
• Prompts assisting this change gradually decrease or “fade” to increase probability of success
• Gradual “fading” of prompts
Chaining
Connection of stimulus and responses that each connection goes together to make the final behavior
• Each response is serving as a discriminative stimulus that the next response should happen
• Sequence of discriminative stimuli and responses
> Stimulus response = Links
• Total task presentation vs. Forward/backward chaining
> Total task is more effective
Chaining vs. Shaping or Fading
• Final behavior consists of entire chain
• Backward or forward
• Reinforcement of chain
Discuss factors that influence the effectiveness of shaping
• Can shape a behavior according to:
> Topography
> Amount
> Latency
> Intensity
• Factors related to shaping:
> Starting and final behavior
- Starting behavior
- Goal behavior
- Intermediate behavior
> Choosing steps
> Pacing of steps
Discuss factors that influence the effectiveness of fading
• Gradual fading of prompts
> Prompting
- Providing assistance during the behavior change process
* Verbal
* Gestural
* Environmental
* Physical
> Increase the probability of success on a task
Discuss the factors that influence the effectiveness of chaining
• Factors related to chaining:
> Task analysis
> Modeling of behavior
> Ample reinforcement
> Decreasing assistance
Situational Inducement
Involves influencing a particular behavior by using situations and occasions that already exert control over the behavior
• A close synonym is environmental prompting
• Changing things around in the environment
Describe four different types of situational inducement
• Rearranging the surroundings
• Moving the activity to a new location
> Make it easier for the behavior to occur
• Relocating people
• Changing the time of the activity
Stimulus Generalization
Ability to behave in a new situation in a way that has been learned in other similar situation
Response Generalization
Similar responses also ellicit reinforcement (strengthen behavior)
Stimulus Discrimination
Ability to distinguish between stimuli
• If new situations are not distinguished from the target situation stimulus generalization occurs
• Similar responses to multiple stimuli results and response generalization
Reversal Design
Used to study the effect of a treatment on the behavior of a participant
(see study guide for in depth description)
Multiple Baseline Design
Same treatment over multiple variables such as people or places
(see study guide for in depth description)
Simultaneous Treatment Design
Allows for the comparison of two or more treatments within one individual
(see study guide for in depth description)
Changing Criterion Design
Common type of design and is a desirable design used to change behavior gradually and in step like increments
Generalization
How well it transfers to the natural environment
•Ttrain in target situation
• Vary stimuli/responses
• Train enough examples
Behavior Maintenance
Natural reinforcement of target behaviors after use of token economy
• Can change behavior of others (teachers or parents) to help this
Pavlovs Classical Conditioning Paradigm
• Unconditioned Stimulus = Food
• Unconditioned Response = Salivation
• Neutral Stimulus = Ringing of the bell
• Conditioned Stimulus = Ringing of the bell
• Conditioned Response = Salivation
• Extinction = The removal of food so that when the bell rang the dogs would salivate
Describe at least two factors associated with treatment outcome as noted on the Loovas video
• Age
> Treatment is much more effective when started early on
• Intensity
> Children in the experimental group, who received 40 hours of treatment a week showed much better outcomes then the control group, who were given 10 hours a week
What are the four components of learning described by Albert Bandura
• Model
• Consequences
• Internal processes
• Self efficacy
(See in depth for each one on study guide)
Describe the functions of a model
• Response Facilitation: Social prompt that tells you the behavior is appropriate in that setting
• Inhibition/Disinhibition: Strengthen an inhibition you have or help disinhibit it
• Observational Learning: Watching others
Describe model and observer characteristics that influence reactions to modeled behavior
• Salience = Something that stands out
• Liking and Respect = More likely if you respect the model
• Similarity = The more similar you are to the model the more likely you will engage in that behavior
• Reinforcement = If the model is reinforced for behavior and if that reinforcer is valued, then one is more likely to engage in behavior
• Number = The more models, the stronger the learning is as well
Describe the four internal processes required for learning and performance to occur
• Attention = Focusing on the model
• Retention = Being able to remember the action/consequences
• Reproduction = Being able to reenact behavior
• Motivation = Wanting to reenact the behavior
Vicarious Learning
Learning by watching someone else
• Bandura thinks that you can learn without performing the behaviors
Enactive Learning
Learning by doing
Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky)
Distance between the actual development level, as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving, under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers
• Someone who is more advanced that can teach the younger generations
• Learning occurs in the zone
• Reciprocal teaching
Scaffolding (Vygotsky)
And individuals, ability to learn information through the help of a more informed individual
• Guided learning
• 3 categories of problem solving
• Bringing in new information by connecting it with something that you already knew
Describe the constructivist approach to education and how it differs from traditional approaches
• Only experiences can facilitate students to construct their own knowledge. The goal is to construct knowledge rather than passively learn
• Overarching theory
• Cooperative, collaborative, and inquiry base
• Modifies traditional role of teacher
> Teacher is no longer just giving information
> Help students when they may get stuck on something
• Cognitive oriented or socially oriented
> A combination of both
> Socially oriented is working with others
What are the key elements of a multistage view of memory?
• Sensory register
• Short term, memory (STM)
• Long-term memory (LTM)
Modal Model
Input (what is out in the world) -> Sensory register (you see it or hear it) -> Working memory (you do something with this information) -> LTM (long-term memory)
Sensory Register
Momentary and either a echoic (hearing) or iconic (seeing) pattern recognition
Multi Stage View of Memory: Long-Term Memory
STM is elaborated and encoded to become LTM
• Encoding: meaningful connections between new and old information
• Unlimited but you can only attend to so many things at once
• Sometimes resources are tapped, and you lose attention
Short Term Memory (STM)
Pieces of information that are remembered for a short period of time
• Temporary storage
Long Term Memory (LTM)
Unlimited storage of information meant to last a long time
• Considered limitless
Working Memory (WM)
Small amount of information that is stored in the mind and used for cognitive tasks
• Temporary maintenance and manipulation
Explicit Memory (Declarative)
Conscious recollection of a previous episode, as in recall or recognition
• More factual based
• Semantic Memory (Knowledge of the world/facts)
> Frontal temporal lobes
• Episodic Memory (Specific; Recalling specific details of information or past experiences)
> Hippocampus = More to do with emotional memory
Implicit Memory (Non-Declarative)
Does not require the conscious or explicit recollection of past events or information, and the individual is unaware that remembering is occurring
• Ex: Remembering how to drive home
Phonological Loop
Dedicated to working memory and serves to temporarily hold verbal information
(In depth on study guide)
Describe the Multi-Component Model of Working Memory
Separates working, memory functionally from long-term memory, in order to account for functionality that goes beyond the mere activation of long-term memory traces
• Comprised of 3 components:
> Phonological loop
> Visuospatial sketchpad
> Central executive
• Includes an episodic buffer that allows working memory to interact with long-term memory
Describe different encoding strategies discussed in class and in the text: Organization
• the more organized the information, the easier it is to remember
• can be subjective
> how one person organizes may not work with another person
Describe different encoding strategies discussed in class and in the text: Elaboration
• trying to make meaning of what it is you are remembering
• elaborate rehearsal
> processing information more deeply
> more likely to remember information
• rehearsal
> trying to remember it just to remember it
Describe different in coding strategies. Discussed in class and in the text: Schemata
• provides structure to remember the information
• decision to use a schema comes from executive control process
Functions of Schema
• scaffolding
> bringing in new information by connecting it with something that you already knew
• selective attention
> focus attention
> you have some background information, you have a better idea of what to look for
• enables elaboration
> make inferences
> can make more sense of what is coming in
• improves memory searches
> help retrieve information from long term memory
Propositional Networks
• how our long term memory is stored
• memory is stored in units that are connected into networks
• these networks tend to be organized in some hierarchy
• influences how you get the information out
• ex: how you organize your files in your computer
Spread of Activation
• information is organized in semantically related areas
• things that are related go together
• find an alternative way to get there if you can’t find the information you are looking for
• How you put it in is how you retrieve it
• ex: remember someone but can’t remember their name, going through names of people you went to high school with
Hierarchical Levels
• information tends to be organized in hierarchies
• Superordinate, basic, and subordinate
• superordinate = general
> animal
• basic = get a little specific
> dog
• subordinate = very specific
> Chihuahua
Advanced Organizer
This is important to know because it relates to something you have already studied = meaningful encoding
• comparative
> make connections to previously learned material
> helps with encoding
• expository
> building blocks
> making connections to things and build on them = like teaching vocabulary words to understand a concept
• connections make it easier to draw on information and increases retention
> the more connected information is in your memory the more you can use it in different situations in the easier it is to remember
Metacognition
Awareness and knowledge of own learning processes
Describe the concepts of metacognitive knowledge and skills
Metacognitive knowledge vs. Metacognitive skills.
• declarative vs. procedural vs. conditional metacognitive knowledge
> declarative metacognitive knowledge
- Knowing about a particular strategy
- Knowing it exists
> procedural metacognitive knowledge
- Knowing how to use that strategy or skill
> conditional metacognitive knowledge
- Knowing when and why you should use a particular strategy
(In depth in study guide)
Declarative Metacognitive Knowledge
• knowing about a particular strategy
• knowing it exist
Procedural Metacognitive Knowledge
Knowing how to use that strategy or skill
Conditional Metacognitive Knowledge
Knowing when and why you should use a particular strategy
3 standards for monitoring comprehension
Lexical = word choice and meaning
Syntactic = grammar
Semantic = overall meaning of the text
• external consistency -> does it make sense?
• propositional cohesion -> does it go together?
• structural cohesiveness -> does the structure make sense?
• internal consistency -> does contradict itself?
• informational completeness -> is the idea completely expressed
4 Writing Components
• planning
• translating ideas and images into words
• reviewing
• monitoring = comprehension, monitoring as you are writing
Describe key components to metacognitive instruction
3 key components:
• embed instruction into content material
• explicitly note the importance of using metacognitive skill
• prolonged training
> comes with experience
(Look at study guide)
Describe the concepts of availability and production deficiency in meta-cognitive instruction
Availability
• teach them strategies
Production Deficiency
• know the strategies but don’t know how to use them
• or may not want to use the strategy
• do not know it is an appropriate time to use the strategy
Describe the steps of problem solving
- Initial state
- Goals and subgoals
• come to a solution that helps us feel better in a particular situation - Performing operations
• learning strategies that you engage in - Representations
• rely on representations that we have in our cognitions
Describe the differences in the problem-solving abilities of experts
•Possesses more declarative knowledge
> Knowing more about emotional experiences in individuals
•Better hierarchical organization
•More time planning and analyzing
> Thinking before saying something
•Easier recognition of problem types
•Deeper representation of problems
•More carefully monitor performance
> Someone who is less socially skilled may not be able to read someone’s facial expressions
•Understand value of strategy use
Describe the differences in the problem-solving skills of novices
Novices might know about strategies, but don’t know what they need to do. Missing conditional knowledge of when/why to use a strategy
Cognitive Motivational Analysis
How we analyze what it is we are processing
Describe the two structures in cognitive motivational analysis
Valance Evaluation System (VES)
• evaluating how negative a potential stimulus is
• assessing the threat value
• individuals who are highly anxious tend to perceive things as more threatening
• those with anxiety have a lower threshold for deciding that something is threatening
• how are you deciding if something is a positive or negative
Goal Engagement System (GES)
• what do you do if you decide the same thing as potentially threatening
Define locus of control
Rotter’s locus of control = Generalized expectancy regarding an outcome
• Internal vs. External
• Within your control or out of your control
Describe Weiner’s causal attribution theory including the consequences of various attributions
How we attribute your successes and failures
• Causal dimensions
> Internal or external
> Stable or unstable
> Controllable or uncontrollable
- Influences the way we act in the future
Consequences:
Assumes that people are rational and logical beings. Fails to address that a person may have failed due to something that the individual may have done themselves
Learning Goals
To know something
• Mastery
> Want to understand
> Master a topic
• Task involved
• Task focused
• Intrinsic motivation
• More cognitively involved
• More likely to choose a challenging task
Performance Goals
Get it done to avoid looking incompetent
• Ego involved
• Ability focused
> Want to make it look like you have the ability
• Want to protect the way you look to other people
Discuss classroom variables that influence student motivation
• Teacher variables
• Curriculum
• Community of the classroom
• Student autonomy
(Look to study guide for more in-depth information)
Describe what it means to be a self regulated learner
• Why study
> Internal and external reasons
• How to study
> Methods you are going to use
• When to study
> Time of day
• What to study
> Topics
> Materials
• Where to study
> Location
• With whom to study
> Alone vs. With other people.
Describe different theoretical views of self-regulation: Operant (Behavioral)
Monitoring our own behavior and consequences we experience from that
• Self monitoring
> Achievement related behaviors
• Self instruction
> Using discriminative stimuli to know when to study
• Self reinforcement
> Giving yourself reinforcement
Describe different theoretical views of self regulation: Information Processing
How we processed the decisions that we make
• Metacognitive awareness
> Knowledge about yourself and the task
• Control processes
> Develop a plan and monitor that you are making progress towards your goal
• Learning strategies
>Learning strategies that are good for you for that particular topic
> Decision on the strategies that you will be using toward your goal
Describe different theoretical views of self-regulation: Developmental
• Developmental progression
> Infant is regulating their own processes
> Able to better use language skills and cognitive to self regulate their own behavior
• Private speech
> Self regulatory speech from other people becomes private speech they use to guide their behavior
Describe different theoretical views of self regulation: Social Constructivist
Zone of proximal development
• Learning from experienced individuals in your environment
• Teaching you the important decisions
• Language is important
Describe different theoretical views of self regulation: Social Cognitive
Making decisions if it was good or bad
• Triadic reciprocality
> Interaction of the three (person, behavior, and environment)
> Person is interacting with the environment and experiencing the consequences
• Self observation
> Checking your own progress
• Self judgment
> How you feel about it
• Self reaction
> Global on how you feel in general with your progress towards the goal
> Influences your motivation to persist on a particular task
Near vs. Far Transfer
• Near transfer is the study of a problem
> Apply skills to a similar situation, such as when students use essay writing skills across various subjects
• Far transfer is being able to apply skills to a different context such as applying skills from school to non-school settings
• Transferring it to a similar thing vs. something completely different
High-Road vs. Low-Road Transfer
Low road transfer occurs when the initial learning task and the transfer task are sufficiently similar in context and conditions so there is a high level of automaticity
High road transfer requires being able to identify mindful abstractions and connections from the initial learning task in the transfer task
Specific vs. General Transfer
Specific transfer is predicated on the perception and utilization of specifying information in a transfer task
• Ex: A student who is taught the basic organizational components of a narrative uses exactly those components later in writing an organized and elaborated story
General transfer relies on non-specifying general information
• Ex: Applying the capacity for logical thought acquired in the philosophy, course to problems arising in business
Maintenance Transfer
Continuing to use transferred skills
Surface vs. Deep Transfer
Surface transfer is taking knowledge and applying it as is
Deep transfer is consolidating knowledge and then transferring it
Positive vs. Negative Transfer
Positive transfer is when learning, and one situation facilitates learning in another situation
Negative transfer is when learning one task makes it more difficult to learn another task
Neutral transfer (zero transfer) = Learning a skill doesn’t help or harm the learning of another task
Discuss variables related to successful/unsuccessful transfer
Degree of mastery = Experts and masters of material can transfer material easier
Understanding vs. Memorizing = Understanding material allows for better transfer
Time to learn = Taking more time to learn and master material gives more transfer
Context = Similar contexts lead to better transfer
Prior experience = need to draw on relevant experience but prior experience may interfere with understanding new material (cultural/home differences with school setting)
Describe characteristics of emotions
Emotional experiences have 3 components = A subjective experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral or expressive response
• Distinctive universal signals = they look a certain way
• Emotion specific physiology = certain things happen in the body
• Automatic appraisal mechanism = not a lot of thought going into identifying it
• Universal antecedent events = things it is common for people to be afraid of or feel sadness related to
• Distinctive appearance developmentally
• Present in other primates
• Quick onset
• Brief duration
List the proposed basic emotions
Sadness
Happiness
Fear
Anger
Surprise
Disgust
Feeling tradition
Physiology and emotions are related
Key player is Descartes = How you feel physically
Empiricism: Locke
Realist
Idealist
Motivation tradition
Emotions are motivation states
Key player is Darwin = Emotions are purposive
Impulsivity
Reflexive
Evaluative tradition
Emotions are cognitive evaluations
How you interpret the situation and emotions evaluate the process
Constitutive
Causal
Self-efficacy
Is an individual’s belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments
• Belief in one self to execute actions
Outcome Expectations
Are personal beliefs in the effect of an action on achieving a particular outcome
• Belief in the action
Self-concept
Is how we perceive our behaviors, abilities, and unique characteristics
• Defining ourself and our behaviors
Describe five cognitive components related to processing of emotional stimuli: Selection
Approach or avoid task
Bottom up = don’t have to think about it
You select what you attend to
Bottom up (stimulus driven) vs. Top down (goals)
Describe five cognitive components related to processing of emotional stimuli: Orienting
What are you paying attention to or looking for
Describe five cognitive components related to processing of emotional stimuli: Automaticity
Not requiring a lot of effort (innate or acquired)
Describe five cognitive components related to processing of emotional stimuli: Control
Based on history = you pick things you think will help
Focus on and choose to attend to the things that are most helpful
Describe five cognitive components related to processing of emotional stimuli: Capacity
Limited pool of resources
Focus on one thing makes you less likely to attend to other things
Emotion knowledge
Accurate understanding of the expressions, feelings, and functions of discrete emotions
Emotion utilization
Processes involved in making adaptive use of emotion arousal
Emotion regulation
Neural, cognitive, and behavioral/action processes that sustain, amplify, or attenuate emotion arousal
Affective Heuristic
Mental shortcut where your affect guides your perception of experience
ex: if someone has a positive attitude they will assume risk are low and benefit is high and vice versa
(Look at study guide for in-depth explanation)
3 Dimensions of Affect: Anticipatory vs. Anticipated
Anticipatory is how you feel in the moment
• This test sucks as I’m taking it
Anticipated is how you think you will feel in the future
• I will feel much better after this test
3 Dimensions of Affect: Incidental vs. Integral
Incidental is not about the current situation
• Come home in a bad mood and you yell at someone at home
Integral is about the situation
• Situation at home puts you in a bad mood so you yell at someone
3 Dimensions of Affect: Immediate vs. Expected
Immediate is how you feel in the moment
Expected is how you think you will feel
Singularity Effect
How affect influences your decisions to help others (one person vs. a lot of people)
Mood Maintenance
People want to stay in a good mood, so they avoid making risky decisions
People in a bad mood feel they have nothing to lose so they feel that taking a risk may make things better
Mood Repair
Take a risk to feel better
People in a bad mood working to shift toward a good mood
• Increasing self-confidence
• Handling self criticism
• Controlling negative thinking
• Making sadness less overwhelming
• Increasing energy levels to boost motivation
Counterfactual Thinking
Mental simulation of comparing the present state with other possible but not obtained states
• After you make a decision -> You evaluate a decision
• ex: You decide to take a job, now you’re thinking if it was a good choice
Upward counterfactual thinking
• How things could have been better
• “If I didn’t take this job, I could have more money”
• Makes you feel bad about the decision you did make
Downward counterfactual thinking
• Thinking about how things could be worse
• “Good thing I took the job because I can pay rent”
Situation selection
Approach (positive experience) or avoid (negative experience) particular tasks
Problem occurs if you avoid things you need to be part of
Situation modification
Change the situation
Not avoiding the situation but making the situation better (go to party with a friend)
Conflict resolution
Arm yourself with information to know as much about the situation as possible
Attentional deployment
Regulate yourself through the attention you place on certain tasks
Distraction = shift attention to something else
• ex: on what you’ll do after
Rumination = not adaptive strategy (maladaptive)
• People who are depressed do this
Mindfulness = focus on the here and now
Cognitive change
Change how you think about it or the way you can handle it to change how you feel about it
Adaptive humor
Reappraisal
Response modulation
Change how we respond
• Change our behavior
• ex: exercise when stressed, clean, or vent
Substance use and self harm are maladaptive
Emotion suppression
• ex: looking calm when upset
Venting
ADHD Deficits
• Deficit in inhibition -> Impulsive
• Interference control
• Working memory
• Attentional flexibility
• Planning
ADHD Difficulties
• Don’t plan
• Decision making is impulsive
• Not being thoughtful in the processing of information
• Distracted by information
• Hard time keeping information in their head
• Less flexibility in what they attend to and how they process information
• Tend to make poor and risky decisions
• Not thinking about the consequences
• Looking for immediate gratification
• Don’t like to have to wait for it
Conduct Disorder
• Insensitivity to negative consequences
• Reduced estimation of negative future events
- Don’t think bad things will happen to them
- More likely to make risky decisions
• Present oriented motivational style
- Do not want to wait
- Care about immediate reinforcement
- Get it now. Screw the consequences
• Do not care about things like suspension
• Misinterpret other people’s actions
- See them as negative (hostility bias)
Major Depressive Disorder
• Disengaged, preservative, and pessimistic decision making
• Blunted affective forecasting
• Don’t think they are going to feel better in the future
• Positive events attributed to external, unstable, and specific causes
• Ruminative style = focus on negative things in the environment
• Do not think they will get positive outcomes
Anxiety
• Hesitant, averse, and self-deprecating decision making style
• Selectively attend to negative information
• Reduced reward valuation
• Avoidance tendencies
• High distraction
• Impaired ability to predict outcomes
- Overestimate negative outcomes
Intrinsic Motivation
From within
Wanting to learn to understand (autonomous)
Extrinsic Motivation
Doing it for some reason other than internal interest
To get some outcome or to avoid some outcome (like failing)
Controlled Motivation
Controlled by others
Motive to exercise at least some control over important events in our lives
• ex: going to piano
Integrated regulation -> taking in the reason for an action
Self-Determined Motivation
Internal motivation
Based on intrinsic factors and a need for growth
Extrinsic can become intrinsic motivation
Identified regulations -> some thing you do and not think about
