Final Exam Flashcards
Explain the anatomy of the brain
The brain consists of two types of cells: neurons and glia.
Neurons are individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information.
Activity of neurons is significant and relates to an organism’s behavior
what are some qualities of Glial Cells
Glia are cells found throughout the nervous system and they provide various types of support for neurons.
Smaller than neurons
Human brain has equal parts neurons and glial
What are some types of Glial Cells
There are many different types of glial cells and they have a wide range of critical functions. For example, some act like parents, providing nutrition, healing, protection, and physical support for the neurons. Some act like cleaners, removing debris from the brain. Some act like a miniature Pac Man from a video game, devouring dead and damaged cells.
What are the 3 ways Glial Cells provide protection to the brain
Provide protection to the brain in 3 ways
Produce cerebrospinal fluid. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a colourless fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord. It has several functions, including serving to cushion the brain during an impact.
Second, they form the blood–brain barrier, which prevents foreign material, including some viruses and drugs, from entering the brain.
Third, they contribute to the immune system of the brain.
How do Glial Cells contribute to braincells
The glial cells provide the neurons with nutrients and energy from the blood. Glial cells provide structure for the neurons, holding them in place and forming scar tissue if the brain is injured.
glial cells also insulate the neurons, allowing them to process information faster and with less energy.
How do Glial Cells contribute to major disorders
Research shows that glial cells play a role in a variety of major disorders.
For example, dysfunction in glial cells may contribute to the cognitive impairment seen in schizophrenic disorders (Wang et al., 2015) and to some forms of depressive disorders
what are some qualities of neurons
there are roughly 86 billion neurons in the human brain
A synapse is a junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next.
A vast majority of neurons communicate only with other neurons. However, a small minority receive signals from outside the nervous system (from sensory organs) or carry messages from the nervous system to the muscles that move the body.
what are the five common properties of neurons
Neurons have 5 common properties
First, all neurons have a barrier, like a skin, that separates the inside of the cell from the outside. This barrier, called the cell membrane, has small channels or gates that allow, or prevent, molecules from entering or leaving the cell. This will become important when we
Second, each neuron has a cell body, also called a soma, which contains the nucleus and acts like a tiny factory where proteins and neurotransmitters (or at least the building blocks of neurotransmitters) are manufactured. (The word soma comes from the Greek word meaning body.) The cell body is where information from thousands of other cells is gathered and sorted out.
Third, all cells have dendrites, which gather much of the incoming information from other cells. Dendrites are the structures that branch out from the cell body. (Dendrite is a Greek word for tree.) Their main purpose is to increase the surface area of the neuron so that chemicals, released from thousands of other cells, can influence the activity of the neuron that the dendrites belong to.
Fourth, in addition to the many dendrites that branch out from the cell body, each neuron has a single main extension called the axon. The axon is a long, thin fibre that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or to muscles or glands. The axon’s main role is to conduct a brief electrical charge away from the cell body. Unlike dendrites, which are just a few millimeters in length, axons can be relatively long. For example, some axons that control movement connect the brain to the spinal cord and can be a meter in length. Some axons may be several meters long in a giraffe.
Fifth, though only one axon leaves each cell body, this axon can branch and each branch ends in an axon terminal. Axon terminals are where chemicals are released by the neuron to influence the activity of other neurons.
what are the purpose of axons
In humans, many axons are wrapped in cells with a high concentration of a white, fatty substance called myelin. The myelin sheath is insulating material, derived from specialized glial cells.
When the myelin sheath is intact it helps to stabilize the axon structure and the patterns of connectivity in the neural network. It contributes to two big advantages.
First, it speeds up the transmission of signals that move along axons
The second benefit of the myelin sheath is that it is very efficient.
what are the four processes that explains the activity of neurons
The activity of neurons can be understood by examining four processes: resting potential, action potential, synaptic transmission, and graded potentials.
explain resting potential
RESTING POTENTIAL
The resting potential of a neuron is its stable, negative charge when the cell is inactive.
To create and maintain the resting potential, two ions are critical: potassium (K+) and sodium (Na+). There are small openings in the cell membrane, called gates or channels, which allow potassium to move more easily in and out of the cell. There are channels for sodium (Na+) as well, but they are usually closed.
Without the resting potential, the brain would not allow us to think, feel, learn, or move.
explain action potential
ACTION POTENTIAL
action potential, which is a very brief shift in a neuron’s electrical charge that travels along an axon.
absolute refractory period, which is the minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin.
A limiting factor in the speed of the action potential is the size of the axon. Axons with a larger diameter have less resistance, so the speed of the action potential can be increased.
explain Synaptic tranmission
Basically, each neuron makes a chemical and stores it in the terminal buttons. When a neuron is sufficiently stimulated, an action potential causes the chemical to be released into very tiny gaps between the neuron and adjacent neurons. These gaps are referred to as synaptic clefts.
These chemicals, known as neurotransmitters, transmit information from one neuron to another.
Explain transportation and storage neurotransmitters
Transportation and storage. When molecules of the neurotransmitter are made, they are transported from the cell body to the axon terminal where they are stored. They are stored in small bead-like containers called synaptic vesicles.
explain the release neurotransmitter
Release. When an action potential in the neuron reaches the axon terminal, the synaptic vesicles melt into the cell membrane, causing the release of the neurotransmitter into the synapse (Schwarz, 2008). Because this part of the membrane is before the synapse, it is called the presynaptic membrane.
explain the binding neurotransmitter
- Binding. The released molecules of neurotransmitter float across the gap and some bind with the membrane of the cell after the synapse. The molecules bind to specialized proteins called receptors. These receptors allow the molecules to influence whether this next cell, the postsynaptic cell, will have its own action potential. A specific neurotransmitter can bind only to receptor sites that its molecular structure will fit into, much like a key must fit a lock.
explain autoreceptor activation neurotransmitter
- Autoreceptor activation. Some neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the same neuron that released it. This type of receptor is called an autoreceptor. Autoreceptors only respond to neurotransmitters that have been released by the same neuron on which it is situated. Binding on these presynaptic receptors can regulate Steps 1 and 3. For example, this binding can decrease the synthesis and release of the neurotransmitter.
explain reuptake neurotransmitter
Reuptake. Leftover and excess neurotransmitter molecules can be brought back in to the presynaptic region of the cell. This is one of the original recycling mechanisms. By taking the extra molecules out of the synapse, this can stop the effect of the neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell and reduce the amount of neurotransmitter that the presynaptic cell must make.
explain degradation neurostransmitter
Degradation. Given that you are continually synthesizing neurotransmitters (Step 1) and recycling used neurotransmitters (Step 7), there needs to be a mechanism to ensure that you don’t end up with too much. Enzymes in the presynaptic region break down excess neurotransmitter molecules, which are then eliminated.
what is the nature of all 8 steps of Synaptic transmission
The first four steps of synaptic transmission share a common purpose; they all increase the influence of the presynaptic cell on the postsynaptic cell. The last four steps share a common purpose as well; they are all involved in stopping the presynaptic cell from continuing to influence the postsynaptic cell.
What are graded potentials
The final process is the trigger that takes a neuron from its resting potential to an action potential. This trigger is called the graded potential
what are some patterns of neural activity
Normal development is characterized more by the elimination of old synapses appears than the creation of new synapses. The nervous system normally forms more synapses than needed and then gradually eliminates the less-active synapses
individual neurons do not influence behavior but that they are linked in complex networks he called cell assemblies. He formulated the Hebbian learning rule; when a neuron stimulates another neuron repeatedly, this produces changes in the synapse between them.
Long-term potentiation refers to a long lasting increase in neural excitability in synapses along a specific neural pathway.
how do neurons influence other neurons
neurotransmitters are molecules that are released from the presynaptic region to allow one neuron to influence the firing rate of another neuron.
what are 4 common properties of neurotransmitters and their influences
4 common properties of neural transmitters
1. They are synthesized in the neuron.
2. They are stored in the synaptic terminals.
3. They are released when the neuron has an action potential.
4. They are deactivated or removed from the synapse when they have completed their task.
Neurotransmitters have only one of two effects when they are released into the synapse. They either increase the chance of the postsynaptic cell firing (i.e., they produce excitatory postsynaptic potentials) or they decrease the chance of the postsynaptic cell firing (i.e., they produce inhibitory postsynaptic potentials).
what is Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine (ACh) is present throughout the nervous system. It is the only transmitter between motor neurons and voluntary muscles.
An inadequate supply of ACh in certain areas of the brain is associated with the memory losses seen in Alzheimer’s disease
An agonist is a chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.
An antagonist is a chemical that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter.
What are Monoamines
The monoamines are a category of neurotransmitters that includes dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. Monoamines regulate many aspects of everyday behavior.
Serotonin appears to be one of several neurotransmitters that contribute to the regulation of sleep and arousal
what is GABA
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) seems to produce only inhibitory postsynaptic potentials.
GABA receptors are widely distributed in the brain and may be present at 40 percent of all synapses. GABA is involved in the regulation of anxiety in humans, and disturbances in GABA circuits may contribute to some types of anxiety disorders
What are endorphins
endorphins—internally produced chemicals that resemble opiates in structure and effects.
Explain the peripheral Nervous system
The peripheral nervous system is made up of all the nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord. Nerves are bundles of neuron fibers (axons) that are routed together in the peripheral nervous system.
In the peripheral nervous system what is the somatic nervous system
THE SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
The somatic nervous system is made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors.
Afferent nerve fibers are axons that carry information inward to the central nervous system from the periphery of the body. Efferent nerve fibers are axons that carry information outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body
in the peripheral nervous system what is the Autonomic Nervous system
THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is made up of nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands.
The sympathetic division is the branch of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body’s resources for emergencies.
the parasympathetic division is the branch of the autonomic nervous system that conserves bodily resources.
explain the central nervous system
the central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
Explain the spinal cord and the brain
THE SPINAL CORD
The spinal cord connects the brain to the rest of the body through the peripheral nervous system.
THE BRAIN
Anatomically, the brain is the part of the central nervous system that fills the upper portion of the skull.
the brain contains billions of interacting cells that integrate information from inside and outside the body, coordinate the body’s actions, and enable human beings to talk, think, remember, plan, create, and dream.
How can we research the brain
Case Study: One method involves examining changes in behaviour that accompany brain damage resulting from tumours, strokes, head injuries, and other misfortunes.
Lesioning involves destroying a piece of the brain. It is typically done by inserting an electrode into a brain structure and passing a high frequency electric current through
electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB), where a weak electric current is sent into a brain structure to stimulate it
The electroencephalograph (EEG) is a device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time to show the functioning of the brain
what is transcranial magnetic stimulation
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a technique that permits scientists to temporarily enhance or depress activity in a specific area of the brain.
TMS has been used to explore whether specific areas of the brain are involved in visual–spatial and sensorimotor processing (Maffongelli et al., 2020; McKeefry et al., 2010), short-term memory (Silvantro & Cattaneo, 2010), and language
What are the major regions of the brain
The brain can be divided into three major regions: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain.
Explain the hindbrain
The hindbrain includes the cerebellum and two structures found in the lower part of the brainstem: the medulla and the pons.
The cerebellum (“little brain”) is a large and deeply folded structure next to the back surface of the brainstem.
The cerebellum is involved coordinating movement and is critical for our sense of equilibrium, or physical balance
Explain the midbrain
The midbrain is the segment of the brainstem located between the hindbrain and the forebrain.
Situated at the central core of the brainstem, the reticular formation helps with the modulation of muscle reflexes, breathing, and pain perception
Explain the fore brain
The forebrain is the largest and most complex region of the brain, encompassing a variety of structures, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum
The thalamus, hypothalamus, and limbic system form the core of the forebrain. All three structures are located near the top of the brainstem.
Explain the Thalamus
THE THALAMUS: A RELAY STATION
The thalamus is a structure in the forebrain through which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex
Explain the Hypothalamus
THE HYPOTHALAMUS: A REGULATOR OF BIOLOGICAL NEEDS
The hypothalamus is a structure near the base of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation of basic biological needs.
Explain the Lymbic System (center of emotion)
The limbic system is a loosely connected network of structures located roughly along the border between the cerebral cortex and deeper subcortical areas
The hippocampus and adjacent structures play a role in memory processes (Eichenbaum, 2013). Some theorists believe that the hippocampal region is responsible for the consolidation of memories for factual information and perhaps other types of memories
The amygdala may play a central role in the learning of fear responses and the processing of other basic emotional responses
The heaviest concentration appears to be where the medial forebrain bundle (a bundle of axons) passes through the hypothalamus.
Explain the Cerebrum in the Lymbic system
The cerebral cortex is the convoluted outer layer of the cerebrum.
the cerebral hemispheres are the right and left halves of the cerebrum
The corpus callosum is the structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres.
The temporal lobe (meaning near the temples) lies below the parietal lobe. Near its top, the temporal lobe contains an area devoted to auditory processing, called the primary auditory cortex.
In the front of the brain, just behind your forehead, is the frontal lobe, the largest lobe in the human brain. It contains the principal areas that control the movement of muscles, the primary motor cortex.
Mirror neurons are neurons that are activated by performing an action or by seeing another animal perform the same action.
The portion of the frontal lobe to the front of
the motor cortex is called the prefrontal cortex (see the inset in Figure 3.17). This area is disproportionately large in humans, accounting for about one third of the cerebral cortex (Huey et al., 2006). Its apparent contribution to certain types of decision making and key aspects of self-control
Explain how the brain is malluable
Second, damage to incoming sensory pathways or the destruction of brain tissue can lead to neural reorganization
Third, the adult brain can generate new neurons (Jin,2016). Historically, it was believed that neurogenesis – the formation of new neurons—did not occur in adult humans.
In sum, research suggests that the brain is not “hard-wired” the way a computer is. It appears that the neural wiring of the brain is flexible and constantly evolving.
explain split brain procedures
In split-brain surgery, the bundle of fibers that connects the cerebral hemispheres (the corpus callosum) is cut to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures.
Patients left brain could read words and their right one could draw
Explain how to explore hemispheres of the brain
Researchers have used a variety of other approaches to explore hemispheric specialization in normal people. For example, brain-imaging studies reveal different patterns of activation for each hemisphere when participants work on specific cognitive tasks
The left hemisphere is usually better at tasks involving verbal processing, such as language, speech, reading, and writing.
The right hemisphere exhibits superiority on many tasks involving nonverbal processing, such as most spatial, musical, and visual recognition tasks and tasks involving the perception of emotions.
explain the endocrine system
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream that help control bodily functioning.
Explain hormones
Hormones are the chemicals released by the endocrine glands.
Hormones are like neurotransmitters in the nervous system in that they are stored for subsequent release as chemical messengers, and once released, they bind to special receptors on target cells.
Explain the Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland releases a variety of hormones that are distributed throughout the body, stimulating activity in other endocrine glands.
Explain Oxytocin
Oxytocin is a hormone released by the pituitary gland, which regulates reproductive behaviours.
Oxytocin may facilitate the development of a sense of security, feelings of safety, and a highly tuned sensitivity to and empathy for others
Oxytocin may increase trust in humans. In one study, research participants who inhaled an oxytocin spray trusted others more with their money than those in a control condition
explain behavioural genetics
behavioural genetics—an interdisciplinary field that studies the influence of genetic factors on behavioural traits.
explains chromosones and genes
CHROMOSOMES AND GENES
Chromosomes are threadlike strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules that carry genetic information
Genes are DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission.
polygenic traits, or characteristics that are influenced by more than one pair of genes.
Explain genotype vs Pheneotype
GENOTYPE VERSUS PHENOTYPE
Genotype refers to a person’s genetic makeup.
Phenotype refers to the ways in which a person’s genotype is manifested in observable characteristics.
Explains Family Studies
In family studies, researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to assess how much they resemble one another on a specific trait.
Family studies can indicate whether a trait runs in families. However, this correlation does not provide conclusive evidence that the trait is influenced by heredity because family members not only share more genes but they generally share more similar environments.
Explain Twin studies
In twin studies researchers assess hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait.
Identical (monozygotic) twins emerge from one zygote that splits for unknown reasons.
Fraternal (dizygotic) twins result when two eggs are fertilized simultaneously by different sperm cells, forming two separate zygotes.
Explain Adoption studies
Adoption studies assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents.
Explain genetic mapping
Genetic mapping is a tool to determine the location and chemical sequence of specific genes on specific chromosomes.
Hence, contrary to early expectations for genetic mapping techniques, it appears that scientists are not likely to identify a handful of specific genes that control intelligence, extraversion, musical talent, or other behavioral traits, including psychological disorders.
What are CRISPRs
CRISPRs are a natural part of our immune systems. CRISPRs store a small section of harmful viruses in order to recognize them next time you are attacked. When CRISPRs recognize an invading virus, they can precisely snip the DNA of the virus so that it can’t replicate.
What are epigenetics
Scientists repeatedly find that heredity and experience jointly influence most aspects of behaviour.
Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve modifications to the DNA sequence.
What is evolutionary Psychology
evolutionary psychology is a relatively new theoretical perspective in the field that analyzes behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive significance.
what did Darwin contribute to contribute to evolutionary Psych
wanted to explain how characteristics of a species might change over generations and why these changes tended to be adaptive.
First, he noted that organisms vary in endless ways, such as size, speed, strength, aspects of appearance, visual abilities, hearing capacities, digestive processes, and cell structure.
Second, he noted that many of these characteristics are heritable—that is, they tend to be passed down from one generation to the next. Although genes and chromosomes had not yet been discovered, the concept of heredity was well established.
Third, borrowing from the work of Thomas Malthus, he noted that organisms tend to produce more offspring than local resources (e.g., food and living space availability) could support.
Fourth, building on this insight, Darwin argued that if a specific heritable trait contributes to an organism’s survival or reproductive success, organisms with that trait should produce more offspring than those without the trait (or those with less of the trait), and the prevalence of that trait should gradually increase over generations resulting in evolutionary change.
fitness refers to the reproductive success (number of descendants) of an individual organism relative to the average reproductive success in the population.
Variations in reproductive success are what really fuel evolutionary change.
explain Behaviours as adapted traits
In addition to the evolution of physical characteristics in animals, Darwin recognized that natural selection was applicable to behavioural traits
Many behavioural adaptations improve organisms’ chances of reproductive success.
What are nerve cells
What is a nerve cell? (a neuron)
Def: the communication links of the nervous system, they vary considerably in size and shape and are usually densely interconnected
Parts of the Nerve Cell
Synapse – the junction between the terminal button (on the end of an axon) of one neuron (pre-synaptic), and either
The dendrite of another neuron (post-synaptic)
The membrane of a muscle fibre, or
A gland
Synaptic Cleft - a fluid filled space between the two neurons
The action potential reaches the terminal button at the end of the axon - the AP does not cross the synapse
The terminal button contains vesicles
These vesicles contain neurotransmitters
What is the cell body
Cell Body (soma) – contains the nucleus & acts like a tiny factor where proteins & neurotransmitter & where the information from thousands of other cells is gathered and sorted out.
What are dendrites
Dendrites – gather much of the incoming information from other cells & are the structures that branch out from the cell body
Emanate from the Soma - receives most of the synaptic contacts from other neurons & send info to the Soma
Some are smooth & some have bumps [dendritic spines - a cup to catch the info]
What is an Axon
Axon – a long, thin fibre that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or to muscles or glands
Carries messages [action potentials] away from the Soma towards other cells
What are terminal Buttons
Terminal Buttons - the button-like endings of the axon branches, which release chemicals (neurotransmitters) into the synapses
What are axon terminals
Axon Terminals – where chemicals are released by the neuron to influence the activity of other neurons
what is a Myelin Sleath
Myelin Sheath – insulating material, derived from specialised glial cells [fatty insulation around many axons]
Functions to insulate axons from accidentally receiving messages from other cells around them
Functions to increase the speed of the action potential
Nodes of Ranvier - the gaps between sections of myelin
Explains the Steps of Action Potential
Initially, some ion channels in the axon membrane open, permitting Na+ to flow through. This causes a brief reversal in the charge of the axon (it goes from -70 mv to about +30 mv)
Then, in response to this reversal in the axon’s charge, K+ ions flow out of the neuron, thereby restoring the neuron to its normal resting state
However, now the neuron is imbalance (too much Ns+ inside & too much K+ outside). Thus, ion channels and ion transporters open to permit these two ions to return to their normal states (a re-balancing of the neuron’s chemical state)
The action potential travels along the length of the neuron - as one section of the axon becomes depolarized (fires), it stimulates the next section to begin to depolarize - thus causing the next section to reach its threshold of excitation
How to nerve impulses start
Neurons are stimulated by receptor cells [receptor cells are “gated” (stimulated) by the appropriate external stimulus (instead of being stimulated by another neuron)]
The stimulus causes the neuron’s sodium channel to open
Causing sodium ions to flow into the cell
Causing a depolarization of the membrane potential & starting an action potential (the nerve impulses)
Two examples:
Chemical-gated sodium channels in the tongue (taste receptor cells) open when a certain channel in food binds to them
Mechanically-gated ion channels in the hair cells of the inner ear (auditory receptor cells) open when they are distorted by sound vibrations
In both cases, the newly-opened gates allow the cell membrane to begin to become “depolarized”
what is the threshold of excitation
Threshold of Excitation - in order for a neuron to generate an action potential, it must be initially stimulated past the threshold of excitation (-50 mv)
It must be depolarized from -70 to -50
What is a synapse
Def: a junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next
What happens at the synapse (how does neural communication happen across the synapse)?
When a neural impulse reaches an axon’s terminal buttons, it triggers the release of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters, which diffuse across the synaptic cleft & bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron
How to nerve cells work together in networks
A neuron sending a signal (presynaptic neuron) releases a chemical called a neurotransmitter, which binds to a receptor on the surface of the receiving (postsynaptic neuron). Neurotransmitters are released from presynaptic terminals, which may branch to communicate with several postsynaptic neurons
how do nerve cells integrate signals
Incoming signals from other neurons are typically received through its dendrites. The outgoing signal to other neurons flows along its axon. A neuron may have many thousands of dendrites, but it will have only one axon.
how do nerve cells learn
Each neuron learns by moving along the gradient of improvement as defined throughout the synaptic process. At the network & system level, the results in behaviour optimizes over time
Explain Excitatory
Excitatory - the effects of the transmitter make it “more likely” that the post-synpatic neuron will fire (i.e., stimulates Na+ gates to open allowing some Na+ to enter the cell thereby moving the cell membrane charge closer to the threshold of excitation, called depolarization)
Explain inhibitory
Inhibitory - the effects of the transmitter make it “less likely” that the post-synaptic neuron will fire (i.e. stimulates K+ gates to open allowing some K+ to exit the cell thereby moving the cell membrane charge farther from the threshold of excitation, called hyper-polarization)
What is the medulla and where is it
The medulla: in charge of largely unconscious but vital functions, including circulating blood, breathing, maintaining muscle tone, and regulating reflexes such as sneezing, coughing, and salivating.
attaches to the spinal cord
In the Hindbrain
What are the pons and where are they
The pons: includes a bridge of fibres that connects the brainstem with the cerebellum.
Contains several clusters of cell bodies involved with sleep and arousal.
In the Hindbrain
what is the Reticular formation and where is it
The reticular formation: runs through both the hindbrain and midbrain.
Helps with the modulation of muscle reflexes, breathing, and pain perception.
Regulates sleep and arousal.
explain the cerebral hemipheres
The cerebral hemispheres: the right and left halves of the cerebrum.
The corpus callosum: the structure made of thick bands of fibre that connects the two cerebral hemispheres.
how are each cerebral hemispheres divided
Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into four parts called lobes.
The occipital lobe: at the back of the head, includes the cortical area, where most visual signals are sent and visual processing is begun.
The parietal lobe: in front of the occipital lobe. It includes the area that registers the sense of touch, called the primary somatosensory cortex.
Monitors the body’s position in space.
The temporal lobe: below the parietal lobe.
Comprehension of speech and language.
The primary auditory cortex is near the top of the temporal lobe and is dedicated to auditory processing.
The Frontal Lobe: the largest lobe and is located behind your forehead.
Includes the primary motor cortex that controls the movement of muscles.
Prefrontal cortex: contributes to certain decision making and key aspects of self-control. Accounts for ⅓ of the cerebral cortex.
Explain the Intact brain
Perceptual asymmetries: looks at left-right imbalances in visual or auditory processing.
The left hemisphere is usually better at tasks involving verbal processing, such as language, speech, reading, and writing.
The right hemisphere exhibits superiority on many tasks involving nonverbal processing, such as most spatial, musical, and visual recognition tasks and tasks involving the perception of emotions.
what are the forces of evolution
Fitness: refers to the reproductive success (number of descendants) of an individual organism relative to the average reproductive success in the population.
Variations in reproductive success are what really fuel evolutionary change.
Traits might contribute to evolution in two ways: by providing either a survival advantage or a reproductive advantage.
Adaptation: is an inherited characteristic that has increased in a population (through natural selection) because it increased the probability of survival or reproduction during the time it emerged
what are Psychophysics
The study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience.
The first experimental psychologists focused on sensation and perception and called it psychophysics.
Explain sensation vs perception
Sensation: the stimulation of sense organs.
Involves the absorption of energy, such as light or sound waves, by sensory organs, such as the ears and eyes.
Perception: the selection, organisation, and interpretation of sensory input.
Involves organising and translating sensory input into something meaningful, such as your best friend’s face or other environmental stimuli.
explain synthesia
Synthesia: a condition in which perceptual or cognitive activities (ex. Listening to music, reading) trigger exceptional experiences (ex. Colour, taste).
Explain Sensation thresholds
Threshold: a dividing point between energy levels that do and do not have a detectable effect.
Absolute threshold: for a specific type of sensory input is the minimum amount of stimulation that an organism can detect.
define the boundaries of an organism’s sensory capabilities.
there is no single stimulus intensity at which the subject jumps from no detection to completely accurate detection.
As stimulus intensity increases, participants’ probability of responding to stimuli gradually increases.
Just noticeable difference (JND): is the smallest difference in the amount of stimulation that a specific sense can detect.
vary by sense.
The smallest detectable difference is a fairly stable proportion of the size of the original stimulus.
Weber’s Law: states that the size of a just noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the size of the initial stimulus.
Different fractions apply to different types of sensory input.
Ex. the Weber fraction for lifting weights is approximately 1/30. This means that you should be just able to detect the difference between a 300 gram weight and a 310 gram weight.
what is signal detection theory
proposes that the detection of stimuli involves decision processes as well as sensory processes, which are both influenced by a variety of factors besides stimulus intensity.
what is detectability
measured in terms of probability and depends on decision-making processes as well as sensory processes.
