Final Exam

Question 1

1. In the instructional approach A – B – C, what does the letter A stand for?

Answer 1

Antecedent—what happens before the behavior occurs. The antecedent sets the stage for the target behavior.

Question 2

2. In the instructional approach A – B – C, what does the letter B refer to?

Answer 2

Behavior—what is targeted for change. This is the targeted behavior on which teachers will be collecting data.

Question 3

3. In the instructional approach A – B – C, A can also be considered __________.

Answer 3

stimulus

Question 4

4. In the instructional approach A – B – C, what does the letter C stand for? What does it involve?

Answer 4

Consequence—what happens after the targeted behavior. Every behavior is followed by a consequence

Question 5

5. What are the four steps involved in systematic instruction?

Answer 5

• Before beginning instruction, it is important to clearly define the skills the student will make to demonstrate learning. In systematic instruction, these skills are defined as observable and measurable responses.
• Define the Specific Methods to Use in Instructing the Skills
• Implement the SIP
• Review Student Progress and Modify Instruction

Question 6

6. Describe and give an example of discrete responses?

Answer 6

Discrete responses involve a single step (e.g., activating a switch, saying hello). These discrete responses have a clear beginning and ending and typically cannot be broken down into smaller steps.

Question 7

7. Describe and give an example of chained tasks

Answer 7

There are three distinct ways to teach the steps of task analysis: (1) forward chaining (FC), (2) backward chaining (BC), and (3) total task presentation (TT). FC and BC are called serial chaining procedures because each step is trained in a serial fashion, one step at a time.
Example: handwashing, putting on coat, turning in homework, cooking

Question 8

9. What is forward chaining? Give an example.

Answer 8

In FC the student receives instruction in the first discrete step in the chain of skills, and that first step is trained to mastery, or a predetermined criterion, before the second step is trained (Spooner, 1984). This continues until all steps in the chain have been taught to mastery or the set criterion. Advantages of a serial chaining procedure such as FC have been documented in that each method in isolation (FC, BC) has been proven to be successful

Question 9

10. What is backward chaining? Give an example.

Answer 9

the student receives instruction on the last discrete step in the chain of skills but the preceding skills in the chain are completed for the student. The educator typically assists the student through all of the steps, but on the last step he or she will stop and teach the skill using a predetermined prompting procedure. Once the student meets criterion on the targeted step (e.g., completes it without prompting for three consecutive opportunities), then the educator will move to the second-to-last step. This continues until all skills in the chain have been taught to criterion.

Question 10

11. What is total task presentation? Given an example.

Answer 10

In TT, the student is instructed on each step of the chain from the beginning (Spooner, 1984). This continues until all steps in the set are mastered to a predetermined criterion (e.g., six correct completions of the task without error or assistance)

Question 11

12. What is a teaching trial? What does it involve?

Answer 11

A teaching “trial” is each opportunity the student has to make the target response or the chain of responses if a total task is being presented. These tasks may be scheduled for massed, spaced, or distributed trial instruction. In massed-trial instruction, the student has multiple opportunities to make the response in rapid succession.

Question 12

14. What is simultaneous prompting? Give an example.

Answer 12

Simultaneous prompting is a response-prompting system in which, upon the presentation of the stimulus, the controlling prompt is immediately delivered. This is identical to the zero-delay round of time delay, but with simultaneous prompting, the prompt is always delivered immediately after the stimulus at zero delay; there is no movement to a delay round.
Example: Teacher models how to count from 1 to 5, and then the student repeats. After several repetitions, student counts from 1 to 5 without a model

Question 13

15. Describe and give an example of constant time delay.

Answer 13

In constant time delay, after several rounds at a zero delay, the stimulus is presented, and the instructor waits a predetermined amount of time (e.g., 4 seconds) before the controlling prompt is provided. If an error occurs during instruction, the instructor should block and redirect to the correct answer.

Question 14

16. Describe and give an example of least to most prompting.

Answer 14

uses a prompt hierarchy in which prompts are provided, as needed, from the least intrusive prompt to the most intrusive prompt. The teacher selects about three types of response prompts and sequences in order of intrusiveness (e.g., verbal, then model, then physical guidance).
Example: Teacher asks student a question, “Who is President?”, and waits for student to point to correct answer in a four-choice array of pictures. When student does not answer, teacher repeats the question, and states the answer (verbal prompt). When student still does not answer, teacher touches the correct picture (model prompt) saying, “Now you do it,” and waits for a response. When student does not answer, teacher repeats the question, and helps student touch the picture (physical guidance).

Question 15

17. Describe and give an example of most to least prompting

Answer 15

uses a hierarchy of prompts, like the system of least prompts, but in this case the prompting starts with the most intrusive prompt and systematically moves to less intrusive prompts as the student starts to respond more independently or meets criterion/mastery (e.g., responds to a model prompt for four consecutive trials). A variety of skills have been trained successfully using a most-to-least prompting procedure.
Example: Teacher asks student a question and uses hand-over-hand guidance to teach student to press the button of the AAC (physical prompt) to respond to the question. After 10 days, teacher points to the button (gestural prompt).

Question 16

20. What are response prompting systems? Give an example.

Answer 16

In response-prompting systems, the prompt is delivered after, or concurrently with, the presentation of the target SD. Response prompts are typically actions performed by the instructor. There are at least five types of response prompts. The instructor may (1) tell the student how to respond (verbal), (2) indicate the material to use or what to do next (gesture), (3) show the full desired response (model), (4) help the student begin to make the response (partial physical) or (5) guide the student to make the full response (physical).

Question 17

21. What is a controlling prompt?

Answer 17

Note that the last prompt in the hierarchy must be the controlling prompt. A controlling prompt is one that you know will ultimately get the student to respond. For some students, the controlling prompt is a full physical prompt, but for other students the controlling prompt might be a specific verbal prompt.

Question 18

22. Which prompting system is considered ‘self-fading and why?

Answer 18

The system of least intrusive prompts is considered to be “self-fading,” because the teacher uses less assistance as the student begins to respond. This self-fading can be promoted through the use of praise and other reinforcers identified as meaningful to the student.

Question 19

23. What are Early numeracy skills?

Answer 19

Early numeracy skills are to mathematics as phonics skills are to reading. Early numeracy skills refer to the development of number concepts. Skills that fall under this umbrella include identifying numbers, rote counting, understanding that a number refers to an item or a set of items (representing numbers and counting with one-to-one correspondence), understanding that a number of objects remains the same when rearranged spatially (number conservation), breaking apart and building numbers (composing and decomposing numbers), place value (magnitude of numbers), early measurement concepts such as identifying things as bigger or smaller and quantities as more or less, adding and subtracting quantities, and patterning.

Question 20

Time delay

Answer 20

Teacher says, “Show me the word bread” as she points to the correct answer (gestural prompt). On the next trial, she says, “Show me the word bread,” but waits 2 seconds.

Question 21

Least to most intrusive prompts

Answer 21

Teacher asks student a question, “Who is President?”, and waits for student to point to correct answer in a four-choice array of pictures. When student does not answer, teacher repeats the question, and states the answer (verbal prompt). When student still does not answer, teacher touches the correct picture (model prompt) saying, “Now you do it,” and waits for a response. When student does not answer, teacher repeats the question, and helps student touch the picture (physical guidance).

Question 22

Graduated guidance

Answer 22

Teacher uses hand-over-hand guidance to teach correct letter formation to write the letter M. As student’s writing improves, teacher uses less and less physical pressure until student writes the letter M independently.

Question 23

8. What are appropriate ways to teach the steps of task analysis?

Answer 23

These skills are called chained tasks. Task analysis is the process of taking a chained task, a task with multiple steps, and breaking it up into teachable components or a set of discrete steps (Spooner, 1984). Some examples of skills that can be taught using a task analysis include using a drink machine, completing an inquiry science lesson, ordering and purchasing food at a fast food restaurant, progressing through an algebraic equation, and participating in a literacy lesson.

Question 24

Massed Trials

Answer 24

• In task-analytic instruction, the teacher may present the entire task once daily or in any of the trial formats. For example, the teacher may give the student three opportunities to perform all the steps of the task analysis to solve a math problem or tie his or her shoes (massed trials).
• In massed-trial instruction, the student has multiple opportunities to make the response in rapid succession.

Question 25

Distributed Trials

Answer 25

• Distributed trials work well for teaching students to use new skills during naturally occurring routines

Question 26

18. What is the most effective and efficient way to transfer stimulus control?

Answer 26

• Transferring student responding from the prompting stimulus (e.g., teacher model or the picture prompt) to the target stimulus (e.g., sight word) is called transfer of stimulus control.
• In general, the target response should be one the student will do independently and actively and can physically do without assistance once transfer of stimulus control has occurred
• Time delay transfers stimulus control through this errorless learning strategy

Question 27

Stimulus shaping

Answer 27

Stimulus shaping is the process of highlighting an important feature of the materials used for instruction, the relevant dimensions

Question 28

Stimulus fading

Answer 28

is the procedure by which a feature of the materials (stimulus) is made more salient and then gradually faded over time to become a more generalized stimulus. In this procedure, fading involves the manipulation of any dimension of the stimulus (e.g., color, size, shape, position)

Question 29

Positive Reinforcement

Answer 29

Positive reinforcement is a means by which teachers can increase the probability that a behavior will occur in the future. A teacher uses positive reinforcement when he or she provides something that is pleasant. Positive reinforcement is often thought of as a reward
Examples: verbal praise, rewards, nonverbal ques, special privileges

Question 30

Negative Reinforcement

Answer 30

Negative reinforcement is also a means by which teachers can increase the probability that a behavior will occur in the future. A teacher uses negative reinforcement when he or she removes something that is unpleasant. Negative reinforcement is often thought of as relief from something aversive (e.g., boring class work).
* Example: Removing the code of silence in the classroom once everyone completes their tasks.
Freedom to escape extra classes if students perform well in exams

Question 31

25. What is repeated trial? When should it be used?

Answer 31

• For example, a teacher might plan to use repeated-trial assessment to record a student’s vocalization of a letter sound when presented with a visual depiction of a letter. At first, the teacher scores responses as correct when the student’s vocal response is identical to the correct letter sound, but after a few weeks she begins to accept approximations of letter sounds.

Question 32

26. When and why would a teacher use duration to collect data on student progress?

Answer 32

• Teachers are often interested in how long an individual engages in a behavior.
• total-duration recording, in which a teacher determines the total amount of time an individual engages in a specified behavior.
• duration-per-occurrence recording. When using this procedure, the teacher starts a timer when the first occurrence of behavior begins and stops the timer as soon as the behavior ends. The teacher then records the duration of the occurrence and resets the timer.
• Duration-per-occurrence recording is often preferable to total-duration recording because it provides more information about the occurrence of a behavior, including the number of occurrences, the average length of each occurrence, and the total duration of time spent engaging in the behavior.

Question 33

27. When and why would a teacher use frequency as a data collection method?

Answer 33

• Frequency (or event) recording is a way to measure the number of times a behavior occurs within a given period. Frequency recording is best for behaviors with a distinct beginning and end.
• teachers may be interested in the number of times a behavior is observed in the natural environment
• Often, teachers are interested in recording whether or not a student responds in the presence of particular instructional stimuli
• Teachers of students with moderate to severe disabilities also are interested in the assessment of skills composed of multiple steps

Question 34

S-Specific

Answer 34

who, what, when, where, why, which?
What will be accomplished? What actions will you
take?

Question 35

M-Measureable

Answer 35

how will you measure the progress the student makes towards the goal
What data will measure the goal? (How much? How well?)

Question 36

A-Achieveable

Answer 36

what you can do to make it attainable
Is the goal doable? Do you have the necessary skills
and resources?

Question 37

R-Relevant

Answer 37

that makes sense for the student to work on
How does the goal align with broader goals? Why is
the result important?

Question 38

T- Time bound

Answer 38

realistic timing for the goal to be achieved
What is the time frame for accomplishing the goal?

Question 39

31. What are some important philosophical debates in special education that pertain to students with intellectual and developmental disabilities? (2 philosophies)

Answer 39

• Language that we use to talk about disability
• The way we think about disabled people and special education services
• Inclusion
• Placement of students

Question 40

32. What are some legal issues pertaining to special education? (2 issues)

Answer 40

• IEPS
• Seclusion and restraint
• Fape
• Eligibility determination

Question 41

34. What are the most effective methods for monitoring student progress toward IEP goals and objectives for students with moderate cognitive impairment?

Answer 41

There are at least three options for progress monitoring for students with moderate and severe disabilities: (1) extending the research on curriculum-based measurement (CBM) for students with high-incidence disabilities to students with moderate and severe disabilities, (2) using a data-based decisions model, or (3) using permanent products such as the portfolio models currently in use for states’ alternate assessments to track progress.

Question 42

35. What areas must be considered when developing an effective PLAAFP statement for a student with moderate cognitive impairment?

Answer 42

When you are developing an effective plaafp statement for a student, you need to include all academic areas. These would include, math, reading,and writing. It is also important to include the student’s adaptive behavior.

Question 43

36. Define and describe the 3 key components of the PLAAFP.

Answer 43

• Current performance- Provides information about the students academic performance an functional performance. Includes student’s current learning strengths and weaknesses.
• The impact of the exceptionality- how it the students exceptionality affects the student in the general education setting and making progress.
• Baseline data for identified needs- collected for the areas that show the most need. This will provide a place where they can begin from to write goals for the student