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Atmosphere Ocean Environment > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

What is the area of exchange between a river and groundwater called?

A

hyporheic zone

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2
Q

The distinction between a valley and canyon is…

A

that the sides of a canyon are more steep than those of a valley

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3
Q

What variables are considered when calculating discharge?

A

cross-sectional area and velocity

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4
Q

The deepest, fastest channel in a river is called the…

A

thalweg

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5
Q

What factor affects the rate of downcutting in a river?

A

rate of uplift, bedrock composition, stream gradient

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6
Q

Most lateral erosion occurs along what part of a meandering river channel?

A

the cut bank

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7
Q

The base level of a tributary would ____ if a dam and a reservoir were constructed where it flowed into a truncated stream

A

rise

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8
Q

In uniform sediments with a relatively constant and gentle slop at the surface, a ____ drainage network is expected

A

trellis

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9
Q

All else being equal, water will flow faster in a stream with ____ and a ____ wetted perimeter

A

straight channel; small

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10
Q

Which of the following scenarios is more likely to cause a flash flood than a slow-onset flood?

A

the failure of a stream channel’s levees

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11
Q

A stream carrying sediment flows over the solid rock of its channel, polishing the rock and wearing it away. This is an example of…

A

abrasion

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12
Q

The stream gradient of most rivers…

A

is greater near the source than near the mouth

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13
Q

Ultimately, the base level of a stream valley cannot be lower than…

A

sea level

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14
Q

What physical property of the underlying rock would lead to the formation of a cliff over which a waterfall may form?

A

a high resistance to erosion

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15
Q

The shape of a delta is primarily determined by…

A

whether river currents or ocean currents are locally predominant

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16
Q

Within a meander, where is sediment most likely to be deposited?

A

on the inner banks of the meander

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17
Q

Which of the following is NOT true? A 100-year flood…

A

cannot occur in successive years

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18
Q

Which of the following IS true? A 100-year flood…

A

has a 1% chance of occurring in any given year; is more destructive than a 50-year flood; is based on the average recurrence interval of past floods for a particular stream

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19
Q

In some cases, the push of flowing water can break chunks of solid rock off of the channel bed. These pieces are then carried along by a stream as…

A

bedload

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20
Q

Pirate streams…

A

form when headward erosion causes one stream to intersect another

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21
Q

Urbanization of a watershed is most likely to result in…

A

an increase in the volume of water entering streams after rainfall

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22
Q

Which type of aquifer is least likely to be contaminated by surface pollution?

A

confined aquifer

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23
Q

Darcy’s Law takes into consideration what variables?

A

discharge, hydraulic gradient, hydraulic conductivity, and cross-sectional area

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24
Q

For several generations, your family have lived on a farm with a water well. There has never been a problem with the water supply in the past; however, your well has now gone dry. There are several small farms nearby and a large, growing city 50 miles to the north. What can you conclude is the most likely reason for your well to become dry?

A

as the city grew larger, more wells were drilled and water was over-pumped, thus lowering the water table

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25
Q

Karst topography forms predominately in what kind of rock?

A

limestone

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26
Q

Ultimately geysers erupt because of the…

A

decrease in pressure as water rises, allowing it to flash to steam

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27
Q

When the ground surface drops below the potentiometric surface, what is formed?

A

an artesian well

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28
Q

What conditions would lead to the fastest relative groundwater velocity?

A

high hydraulic gradient and high permeability

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29
Q

You have a choice to drill your water into a shallower unconfined aquifer or a deeper confined aquifer; deeper will cost more money; however, you choose to drill into the confined aquifer. Why?

A

the confined aquifer will most likely have a higher water quality

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30
Q

The porosity of vesicular basalt is about 25%; however, when water is poured on it, the water does not reach the other side. How is this possible?

A

the vesicles in basalt are not connected, so it has not permeability

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31
Q

A person is digging a hole, when the hole suddenly starts to fill with water. What have they found?

A

the water table

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32
Q

Which of the following lists correctly orders the three types of subsurface water from shallowest to deepest?

A

soil moisture, vadose zone water, groundwater

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33
Q

Rock or sediment between the water table and the land surface represents a(n)…

A

unsaturated zone

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34
Q

You are drilling a water well when you hit water at a much shallower level than you expected. What have you found?

A

a perched aquifer

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35
Q

As a rule, groundwater always flows from areas of…

A

greater hydraulic head to those of lesser hydraulic head

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36
Q

The rate of groundwater flow per unit area through a body of rock or sediment depends on…

A

the slope of the water table and the permeability of the rock or sediment

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37
Q

Rates of groundwater flow are ____ than stream flow because the water ____

A

lower; must make its way through tiny pore spaces

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38
Q

You are testing the groundwater quality of an aquifer and find that it has high amounts of arsenic. What is the likely source?

A

the arsenic comes from dissolved minerals in the aquifer rock

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39
Q

You have a choice to drill you water well into a shallow unconfined aquifer or a deeper artesian aquifer. Drilling deeper will cost more money; nevertheless, you chose to drill into the artesian aquifer. Why?

A

the artesian aquifer will flow on its own, without a pump

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40
Q

Hot springs can be formed by the heating of groundwater by magma or by…

A

the geothermal gradient

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41
Q

Imagine that some of the wells around a city have begun to show elevated levels of a toxic substance. Without knowing what the toxic substance is, how can you determine what the source of the chemicals might be?

A

determine which wells show the chemicals and which do not and use that data to track the flow of the water

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42
Q

Why is a spring tide so much higher than a normal high tide?

A

because the Sun is aligned with the moon

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43
Q

Which of the following is the BEST example of an organic coast?

A

shallow coral reef

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44
Q

Which of the following features is a characteristic of a rocky coast?

A

sea stacks

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45
Q

Barrier islands are constantly moving in the direction of…

A

the longshore drift

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46
Q

A(n) ____ is a vegetation, flat-lying stretch of coast that floods at high tide, becomes particularly exposed at low tide, and does not feel the impact of strong waves.

A

coastal wetland

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47
Q

Because of wave refraction, erosion along an irregular coastline is…

A

greatest along headlands

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48
Q

When sea level rises, an ocean may invade a river valley, producing a nearshore body of water of mixed and variable salinity termed a(n)…

A

estuary

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49
Q

A coral reef would MOST likely be found…

A

in the shallow waters surrounding a tropical volcanic island

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50
Q

The Florida coast is an example of a(n)…

A

submergent coast

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51
Q

Structure - like jetties, groins, and breakwaters - that are designed to prevent beach erosion…

A

are a temporary solution that decreases the rate of beach erosion

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52
Q

What is the ecosphere?

A

thin layer of the surface of Earth that interacts with the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere; thin layer where life is possible; natural surface system of Earth; from bottom of ocean to mountain peaks and upper limits of lower part of atmosphere; 25 km thick; all life on Earth; only place in solar system that supports life; includes biosphere; biological and physical components of the planet

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53
Q

What is the biosphere?

A

independent biosphere of living organisms or biological processes at the interface between the atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrolosphere; holistic view of the Earth, recognizing several interrelated envelopes surrounding a core and mantle; part of world in which life can exist

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54
Q

What is Gaia?

A

weak Gaia: life wields a substantial influence over some features of the abiotic world, notably the temperature and composition of the atmosphere; Earth’s climate and surface environment are actively regulated by animals, plants, and microorganisms

strong Gaia: Earth is a superorganism which controls the terrestrial environment to suit its own ends, whatever they might be

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55
Q

What is the critical zone?

A

includes the land surface and its canopy of vegetation, rivers, lakes, and shallow seas, and it extends through the pedosphere, unsaturated vadose zone, and saturated groundwater zone

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56
Q

Water balance equation (for a watershed/basin/hillslope)

A

P = Q + ET + S
P is precipitation
Q is runoff
ET is evapotranspiration
S is storage

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57
Q

Hillslopes

A

where streams are generated; fundamental/smallest unit of a headwater watershed

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58
Q

Vadose zone

A

shallow and unsaturated part of the subsurface

boundary between the top of the vadose zone and atmosphere boundary between bottom of vadose zone and water table

capillary fringe in the vadose zone just above the water table

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59
Q

Fates of precipitation with respect to a canopy

A

interception by tree canopy (storage, evaporation); stemflow down canopy into ground

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60
Q

Fates of precipitation with respect to the soil

A

infiltration into soil (storage, evaporation, flow)

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61
Q

Soil

A

mixture of solids (minerals) and voids (pores - liquids, gases, organic matter)

texture is defined by size of particles (clay, silt, very fine sand, fine sand, medium sand, coarse sand, very coarse sand) or texture class (clay, sand, silt)

texture determines how much water infiltrates into the vadose zone (capillary fringe) from saturated zone

organized by layers called horizons (porosity is highest at the surface (plants dig their roots, critters burrow); porosity decreases from surface to depth; porosity is effectively zero at bedrock; horizons affect if/how water enters then flows through vadose zone

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62
Q

Types of flow

A

surface (overland) - infiltration excess (more rainwater hitting surface of soil than can infiltrate into soil; excess rainwater flows horizontally and downslope across surface of soil; occurs often in urban settings and bare soil cover), saturation excess (rainwater hitting surface of soil can infiltrate down into soil; rainwater fills pores of soil, saturating the soil; occurs often in vegetated settings)

subsurface - matrix (largest contributor to flow in terms of volume). macropores (route water quickly through soil matrix; bypasses soil, so water does not interact biogeochemically with soil and organic matter; small component of overall flow in terms of volume; combine to form preferential flow paths)

flow is partitioned between surface and sub-surface compartments depending on infiltration rates of soil

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63
Q

Variable Source Area Concept

A

stream water comes from a source, the source is the landscape, source is defined area-ly not vertically, source area is typically near the stream during normal (dry) conditions, source area expands beyond near-stream environment and up to hillslope during storm (wet) conditions, source area is variable depending on storm conditions, source area gives information (type of soil water must move through, biogeochemical composition of stream water)

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64
Q

Fill and spill hypothesis

A

process explanation for threshold behavior in subsurface stormflow; Variable Source Area theory applied to different depths of soil profile (soil surface, bedrock [ridge, depression]), VSA theory combined with threshold response

transient subsurface saturation (shallow soil areas [upslope], bedrock depressions [midslope]), subsurface saturation expands downslope from the mid and upper hillslope (no saturated wedge expanding upslope)

bedrock microtopography is important (must be filled before water can spill downslope and connect to hillslope, when connectivity is achieved water moves > 5x faster); bedrock is not impermeable (water flows through cracks and fractures in bedrock, delays time to fill and spill)

lateral flow is restricted to bedrock depressions; bedrock depressions are spatially variable; subsurface stormflow is spatially variable; subsurface stormflow is not temporally variable (significant flow initiated after precipitation threshold is reached)

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65
Q

Stream sources

A

melted snow; swamps and puddles collect water on flat land which drains into stream; some water infiltrates and becomes groundwater; sheetwash flows over land into stream; rain or snow falls directly into stream; some water entering stream flows through soil first; groundwater enters stream via springs

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66
Q

Drainage networks of channels

A

dendritic

radial

rectangular

trellis

parallel

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67
Q

Types of streams

A

perennial (permanent); ephemeral (temporary and regular)

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68
Q

Stream discharge equation

A

width x depth x velocity

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69
Q

Base level

A

lowest point to which a stream can erode; adjustments can cause stream readjustments (raising base level increases deposition, lowering base level decreases deposition)

rise in base level causes filling with alluvium, fall causes downcutting of alluvium

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70
Q

Valleys

A

rivers downcut through soft sediment

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71
Q

Canyons

A

rivers downcut through hard rock

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72
Q

Braided streams

A

form where flow is forced around sediment obstructions

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73
Q

Alluvial fans

A

develop at base of a mountain when sediments drop out

course then fine material is deposited

74
Q

Streams meander…

A

along lower gradient portion of the longitudinal profile

evolve over time

meandering cutoffs occur when cut banks converge and a meander neck thins (forms oxbow lakes)

75
Q

Stream banks

A

stream cut bank (high-velocity) and deposit sediment at point bar (low-velocity)

cut banks erode while point bar accretes

76
Q

Deltas

A

sediment deposits at mouth of a stream

deltas starved of sediment slowly compact, dewater, subside, and submerge

77
Q

Avulsion

A

main channel may move to new location to establish steeper, shorter path

78
Q

Evolution of drainage

A

beveling topography

stream piracy

drainage reversals

stream rejuvenation

superposed streams

antecedent and diverted streams

79
Q

Floodwaters

A

high discharge and velocity spill out of stream channel

devastating to people (scours floodplains, alters landscape, destroys structure)

water input exceeds soil infiltration capacity (soil pores are saturated) - abrupt, heavy rains dump large volumes of water quickly; large, continuous rains dump large volumes of water slowly; abrupt, warm weather rapidly melts winter snow; a dam (natural or artificial) breaks, releasing water

80
Q

Flood occurrences

A

seasonally (evacuation possible) - ex. monsoons, rainstorms

suddenly (evacuation impossible) - ex. rainstorms, dam and levee breaks

81
Q

Flood recurrence intervals

A

flood risks are calculated as probabilities

82
Q

Living with floods

A

sandbags and grading increase elevation of people and property

levees allow more channel volume

channelization controls course of flow

dams hold back water

83
Q

Groundwater

A

water that percolates through vadose zone to reside in deep sediment or rock

flows slowly underground

resurfaces after months to thousands of years to rejoin the hydrologic cycle

84
Q

Meteoric water

A

recharges (infiltration) the ground, then discharges (shallow subsurface and groundwater flow)

85
Q

Porosity

A

primary porosity - open space within rock that originally formed with the material (ex. voids in sediment; vesicles in basalt; open cavities in reef limestone); decreases with burial compaction and cementation; crystalline rocks have little primary porosity

secondary porosity - new pore space created after the rock was first formed (ex. fractures, fault breccia, solution cavities)

different porosities of media - vesicular basalt (20%), limestone (25%), shale (5%), well-sorted sandstone (30%), poorly sorted sandstone (15%), granite (< 1%)

86
Q

Aquitards

A

impermeable layers within aquifer

sediments or rocks that have low permeability located above sediments or rocks that have both high porosity and high permeability

87
Q

Perched water table

A

groundwater that is trapped

88
Q

Factors that affect water table depth

A

varies with climate and seasons

varies with precipitation

depth is a subdued replica of surface topography

89
Q

Hydraulic head

A

potential energy due to elevation

weight of overlying water exerts pressure and drives flow

flow always moves from high to low hydraulic head

90
Q

Calculation groundwater flow (Darcy’s Law)

A

Q = K(h1 - h2 / j)A

Q is discharge
K is hydraulic conductivity
(h1 - h2 / j) is hydraulic gradient
A is cross-sectional area perpendicular to flow

high permeability increases flow rate, low permeability decreases flow rate

steep gradients increases flow rate, gentle gradient decreases flow rate

hydraulic gradient indicated by slope of water table

flow rate is governed by permeability by media x hydraulic gradient

91
Q

Installing wells to tap groundwater supplies for human use

A

causes cone of depression in water table after pumping and lowered water table

92
Q

Artesian wells

A

tap confined aquifers

well that penetrates confined aquifers in which pressure causes water to rise up on its own to a level above the top surface of the aquifer

aquifers are pressurized by upland recharge

water rises to potentiometric surface (analogue of water table for a confined aquifer; above ground)

city water systems are designed like artesian aquifers (water tower establishes the potentiometric surface)

93
Q

Springs

A

develop where water table intersects the surface

locations of natural groundwater discharge

important water resources for humans

94
Q

Structural springs

A

flowing groundwater reaches a steep impermeable barrier (pressure pushes groundwater up to surface)

perched water table intersects surface (seep develops)

95
Q

Hot springs

A

deep groundwater discharges along faults in geothermal regions

deep groundwater is warm

source of heat is geothermal gradient (shallow magma; circulation through faults)

96
Q

Geysers

A

groundwater is heated by shallow magma

overlying water weight prevents boiling

bubbles form at surface so pressure drops

water below is superheated, transforms to vapor, boils at once, and is ejected

chamber is refilled with cooler groundwater

cycle repeats

97
Q

Groundwater problems - overabundance

A

rise in water table

initiate slope failures

98
Q

Groundwater problems - depletion

A

excessive extraction of groundwater

decline in water table

water table no longer intersects stream channel

streams and swamps dry up

99
Q

Groundwater problems - reverse in flow direction

A

before pumping, septic effluent is carried by the regional
groundwater flow away from the home well

large irrigation well creates a large cone of depression
reverse in hydraulic gradient

100
Q

Groundwater problems - saline intrusion at coast

A

freshwater less dense

saltwater more dense

freshwater “floats” on saltwater

pumping raises fresh/saltwater boundary

well is contaminated

groundwater becomes unpotable

101
Q

Groundwater problems - subsidence

A

water in pore space acts to hold grains apart

groundwater is removed (sediments compress; pores collapse)

land surface cracks

land subsides irreversibly

can be slowed by engineering zones of inducted recharge

102
Q

Groundwater problems - natural contaminants

A

unwanted substances (hardness, iron, arsenic, etc.)

removed by treatment

103
Q

Groundwater problems - human caused contaminants

A

mine spoil and processing waters; petroleum terminals; abandoned gas stations; industrial solvents and degreasers; paints and thinners; junkyards; landfills; animal feedlot runoff; fertilizers; pesticides

groundwater transports pollutants away from source

creates contaminant plume (high concentration near pollutant)

can be cleaned up, but is expensive

104
Q

Coastal tides

A

tilt of Earth’s axis; position of moon in its orbit; changing gravitational interplay; geometry of basin; barometric pressure

larger sublunar tidal bulge always faces the moon

105
Q

Tidal reach

A

vertical difference between high/low tide

hypotenuse

106
Q

Waves

A

build in response to wind blowing over surface of water

friction slows wave base; waves changes from circular to elliptical

oblique wave attack creates longshore current that moves sand along shoreland in zigzag path

wave refraction focuses wave energy on headland, accelerating erosion; deposition at embayments

when wave attack is head-on, water returns in rip current perpendicular to shore

107
Q

Sediment budget

A

determines character of coastline

input: rivers, erosion of cliffs, wind

movement: longshore drift

output: blown off beach, sinking into deeper water, carried away by longshore currents

winter: stormy water mobilizes sand, sand is moved to offshore shelves, beaches are narrow and gravelly

summer: more moderate wave energy brings back sand, beach is replenished, beach is broad and sandy

108
Q

Wave-cut notch

A

wave attack shatters and abrades cliff

109
Q

Wave-cut bench

A

wave-cut notches progress until cliff collapses, process resumes, cliff retreats over time

110
Q

Estuary

A

river valley flooded by sea-level rise 10-12 kya

111
Q

Fjord

A

glacial valley flooded by sea

112
Q

Organic coasts

A

coastal wetlands: trees, grasses, mosses, mangroves

coastal reefs: create large rocky structures of cemented skeletons; highly productive

113
Q

Atoll

A

ring-shaped coral reef surrounding a lagoon and formed by eroding/sinking volcano

114
Q

Coastal variability

A

glaciation/deglaciation traps or releases water, changing sea level

emergent coasts formed by erosion and uplift

submergent coasts formed by sea level rise and flooding

115
Q

Coastal problems

A

sea-level rise could flood coastal cities

storms (like hurricanes) alter coastlines

116
Q

Oceans

A

Pacific, Atlantic, Arctic, Southern, Indian

cover 70.8% of the planet

117
Q

Continental lithosphere

A

floats high on mantle, and oceanic lithosphere floats deeper on mantle

118
Q

Bathymetry

A

measurement of depth of water

passive margins, active margins, abyssal plains

119
Q

Intertropical Convergence Zone

A

Sun hits most directly near equator (ITCZ)

warm, moist air rises to make clouds

clouds cool high in atmosphere and release precipitation

air comes back down at around +/- 30 degrees latitude

season migration of ITCZ is called Monsoon

responsible for much of global surface weather patterns

120
Q

Water moves differently in subsurface

A

thermohaline circulation (heat + salt)

temp and salinity control density

density controls water movement: less dense water rises, moving to the surface; more dense water sinks, moving to bottom; when some water moves, then other water also moves to take its place

121
Q

Temperature changes in water

A

change with depth more rapidly than salinity changes with depth

122
Q

Salinity changes in water

A

changes with depth

governed by latitude-related evaporation vs freshwater input

123
Q

Climate

A

average weather over a period of time in a specific place

124
Q

Climate change

A

greenhouse effect traps heat (water vapor, greenhouse gases)

greenhouse gas emissions have increase significantly due to humans

CO2 responsible for biggest proportion of temp increase

increases heat content and evaporation

125
Q

Atmosphere

A

air pressure decreases exponentially leaving earth

variations in air density and pressure cause air motion (wind)

air rises then cools adiabatically, forming tiny water droplets that make up clouds

temperature increases and decreases with distance from earth

atmospheric color depends on thickness of atmosphere that light passes through

126
Q

Aurorae

A

charged particles from solar flares are funneled to poles by Earth’s magnetic field then interact with ionosphere

127
Q

Winds

A

lateral pressure differences drive horizontal winds

air flows from high P to low P perpendicular to isobars

high-altitude winds are stronger at steps in the tropopause

winds are deflected by Coriolis effect

jet streams form at wavy boundaries where troposphere temps change dramatically

128
Q

Seasons

A

due to 23.5 degree tilt of Earth’s rotational axis

129
Q

Air mass

A

package of air with unique, recognizable properties that reflect its place of origin

flows over a region for days, changing local weather

130
Q

Fronts

A

boundaries between air masses

curved surface that move with the air masses they separate

wave cyclones are common across mid-US

131
Q

Cold front

A

occurs where cold air mass moves as a density underflow beneath warmer air

132
Q

Warm front

A

develops when warm air pushes cold air as a wedge

move more slowly than cold fronts

have less steep temp and pressure gradients (warm air rising up front produces broad cloud cover)

133
Q

Occluded front

A

combination front that develops when fast-moving cold front overtakes slower warm front

cold front lifts warm front off the ground, which generates “combination weather”

134
Q

(Anti-)cyclone

A

air departing high pressure pulls down cold, dry air from above

air compresses and warms, yielding clear, dry weather

air spirals downward and clockwise at high-pressure air mass

air converges on low pressure and piles up, causing sir to flop up and out

rising air cools, condensing moisture, which builds rain clouds

cold front catches up to warm front (both fronts are connected at a V [center of low pressure])

resulting occluded front eventually dies out

135
Q

Cyclone

A

air spirals upward and counterclockwise at low-pressure air mass

136
Q

Clouds

A

form when water vapor in saturated air condenses as microscopic droplets of water or ice

rain forms when tiny droplets are large enough to fall due to gravity

type of cloud that forms depends on stability of air, temp at which moisture condenses, and wind speed

137
Q

Convective lifting

A

occurs where warm air starts to rise

138
Q

Frontal lifting

A

occurs where cold air pushes up warm air

139
Q

Convergence lifting

A

occurs where winds merge and air has nowhere to go but up

140
Q

Orographic lifting

A

occurs where moist winds run into mountain range and are forced to go up over it

creates rain-shadow deserts

141
Q

Bacteria dominate cryosphere

A

harsh conditions

short trophic chains

bacteria responsible for biogeochemistry

bacteria are diverse in hillslope soils

142
Q

Glaciations

A

moving ice formed by accumulation and compaction of snow

143
Q

Glacier formation conditions

A

cold climate (polar latitudes, high elevation)

snow must accumulate (more snowfall than snowmelt, snow must not be removed by avalanches or wind)

144
Q

Continental glacier

A

ice sheet that covers a continent

145
Q

Dry-based (cold-based) glaciers

A

have their basal part entirely below the pressure melting point

move by internal deformation

146
Q

Wet-based (warm-base) glaciers

A

have basal part at pressure melting point

melting water is lubrication for sliding

increased pressure of overlying ice increases pressure melting point (water exists in lower temps where it would have been frozen)

meltwater underneath the glacier (lubricates contact of ice to bed, reduces friction, allows for greater movement)

147
Q

Glacier movement

A

move by sliding along crystal boundaries

composition of ice crystals affect movement of glaciers to form crevasses

move downslope by gravity

move outward rapidly and laterally

148
Q

Distinct features of glacial-eroded landscapes

A

trunk valley, tributary valley, V-shaped valley, U-shaped valley, cirque, arete, horn, hanging valley, truncated spur, tarn

149
Q

Sea ice

A

covers most of Arctic Ocean

fringes entire continent of Antarctica

150
Q

Discharge

A

volume of water passing a reference point in a given time

151
Q

Headward erosion

A

as time passes, water may dig into land at head of the channel, lengthening the stream by this process

152
Q

Capillary fringe

A

where water seeps upward (due to surface tension) from saturated zones just above the water table

153
Q

Stream piracy

A

natural process that happens when headward erosion by one stream causes the stream to intersect the course of another stream, “capturing” the water of the stream that it has intersected so that the water of the captured stream starts to flow down the
channel of the new stream

154
Q

Thunder

A

crackling or rumbling noise that accompanies lightning because the immense energy of a
flash heats the surrounding air to a temperature of 8,000 deg to 33,000 deg C, causing it to expand and then collapse almost instantly

155
Q

Pleistocene Ice Age

A

most recent ice age, whose impact on the landscape can still be seen today

156
Q

Arete

A

residual knife-edged ridge of rock separating two adjacent cirques

157
Q

Longshore drift

A

where waves reach the near shore at an angle, the active sand moves in a sawtooth pattern that results in the gradual net transport of sediment parallel to the beach

158
Q

bioturbation

A

Stirring by living organisms

159
Q

Exosphere

A

layer of air between 700 and 10,000 km, which is a gradual transition between the atmosphere and beyond; at 10,000 km, the gas concentration becomes the same as interplanetary space

160
Q

gyre

A

Oceanic-scale currents that take water on journeys extending for thousands of kilometers
and have long-established names

161
Q

Equilibrium line

A

boundary between the zone of accumulation and the zone of ablation in a glacier

162
Q

Rogue wave

A

wave that rises two to five times higher than other large waves passing a location during a period of time

163
Q

Gyre

A

oceanic-scale currents that take water on journeys extending for thousands of kilometers and have long-established names

164
Q

Crevasse

A

open crack that develops by brittle deformation of a glacier

165
Q

Relative humidity

A

ration between measured water vapor content and the maximum possible amount of water vapor that the air could hold (expressed as a percentage)

166
Q

Coriolis effect

A

consequence of Earth’s rotation, which causes moving water to veer to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere

167
Q

Pangea

A

The super continent that was present 200 Ma, before tectionic plates moved the landmass apart to what it is today. Dinosaurs walked Pangea.

168
Q

Tidal range

A

vertical difference between sea level at high tide and sea level at low tide

169
Q

Iceberg

A

large block of ice floating in the water

170
Q

Carbon cycles

A

carbon transfers among near-surface reservoirs (ocean, atmosphere, and environment)

carbon is removed for long periods of time (limestones, shale, fossil fuels, methane hydrates)

carbon is removed for a short period of time (trees, animals)

carbon is returned to atmosphere (burning organic matter, metamorphism of carbonate rocks, degassing from the oceans, biotic respiration)

171
Q

Greenhouse effect

A

some gases in the atmosphere absorb thermal energy and re-radiate it, warming the lower atmosphere

H2O is most important greenhouse gas

CO2 is second most important

172
Q

How was the core of the earth formed?

A

when the earth was forming and was really hot, iron sank to the center ‘cause gravity.

173
Q

Growth rings

A

thicker rings wetter and warmer conditions

thinner rings indicate drier and colder conditions

174
Q

Plate tectonics

A

modify positions of continents, thus impacting ocean circulation

175
Q

Protoplanet

A

A large body of matter in orbit around a star, thought to be developing into a planet

176
Q

Global cooling

A

formation of coal and removal of large amounts of organic carbon during Paleozoic era coincided with global cooling

appearances of lichens and grasses decreased atmospheric CO2, leading to cooling

climate warmed for agriculture when Vikings settled in Greenland

177
Q

Holocene

A

the past 15,000 years

178
Q

What is the leading theory of how the moon formed?

A

A mars-sized protoplanet collided with earth, and the earth debris that broke away began orbiting the earth and formed the mass we now know as the moon.

179
Q

Sunspots

A

magnetic storms that slow convection at Sun’s surface

Sun radiates less heat

180
Q

Ga

A

giga anum, billions of years.

181
Q

what are the types of tectonic plate interactions?

A

convergence, divergence, collision, and rifting.

182
Q

Sea level is geologically unstable; __________preserve evidence of sea level changes

A

sedimentary
rocks

Atmosphere Ocean Environment (2 decks)

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