Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
gene pool
A
combination of all the genes (including alleles) present in a reproducing population or species
2
Q
allele frequency
A
how common an allele is in a population. It is determined by counting how many times the allele appears in the population then dividing by the total number of copies of the gene.
3
Q
genotype
A
the genetic makeup of an organism
4
Q
phenotype
A
observable characteristics in an individual resulting from the expression of genes;
5
Q
germ-line mutations
A
gene change in a body’s reproductive cell (egg or sperm) that becomes incorporated into the DNA of every cell in the body of the offspring. Germline mutations are passed on from parents to offspring.
6
Q
somatic mutations
A
mutations that occurs in any other cells besides sex cells. They cannot be passed on to offspring
7
Q
evolution
A
the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations and relies on the process of natural selection.
8
Q
natural selection
A
the process through which populations of living organisms adapt and change.
9
Q
Genetic drift
A
the change in frequency of an existing gene variant in the population due to random chance.
10
Q
prezygotic mechanism
A
takes place before fertilization occurs between gametes and prevents different species from sexually reproducing
11
Q
post-zygotic mechanism
A
a mechanism that blocks reproduction after fertilization and zygote formation
12
Q
temporal separation
A
form of reproductive isolation in which two populations reproduce at different times.
13
Q
ecological separation
A
reproduction is prevented because species live in distinct habitats and rarely encounter each other
14
Q
allopatric speciation by dispersal
A
when a few members of a species move to a new geographical area
15
Q
allopatric speciation by vicariance
A
takes place when a geographic barrier arises, disrupting the gene flow between subpopulations.
16
Q
peripatric speciation by vicariance
A
new populations are formed by a small group of individuals that break off from the main group and form a new group on the periphery (outer border)
17
Q
monophyletic taxon
A
a grouping of all species descended from a common ancestor, including that ancestor
18
Q
paraphyletic taxon
A
A common ancestor and some of its descendants.
19
Q
polyphyletic taxon
A
a grouping with no recent common ancestor.
20
Q
homologous characters
A
characters in different organisms that are similar because they were inherited from a common ancestor that also had that character
21
Q
analogous characters
A
having the same or corresponding roles (function) but do not share a common evolutionary origin.
22
Q
How do fossils form, what type of organisms are most likely to be fossilized and why are fossils useful for phylogenetic analysis?
A
the soft parts of the animals body decompose leaving the hard parts, like the skeleton, behind. This becomes buried by small particles of rock called sediment. Fossilization usually occur in organisms with hard, bony body parts, such as skeletons, teeth, or shells. Fossils provide our only direct window into evolutionary events in the distant past.
23
Q
What is significant about the fossil Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis)?
A
a 3.2 million-year old fossil skeleton of a human ancestor, it proved that our early human relatives habitually walked on two legs.
24
Q
Where and how long ago did modern humans evolve? How do they(we) fit into the primate phylogenetic tree?
A
Evolved in Africa, 300,000 years ago, humans are primates and we are more closely related to all primate species than we are to any animals living today.
25
phototroph
an organism that can use visible light as a primary energy source for metabolism, a process known as photosynthesis
26
chemotroph
organisms that obtain energy by the oxidation of electron donors in their environment.
27
autotroph
an organism that can produce its own food using light, water, carbon dioxide, or other chemicals.
28
Heterotroph
an organism that eats other plants or animals for energy and nutrients.
29
Horizontal gene transfer can involve transduction, transformation or conjugation. What are these?
Transduction: DNA is transmitted from one cell to another via a bacteriophage.
Transformation:a DNA fragment from a dead, degraded bacterium enters a good recipient bacterium and exchanges for a piece of DNA of the recipient.
Conjugation: the process by which one bacterium transfers genetic material to another through direct contact.
30
Microbial mats: main types of metabolic activities as a function of depth.
often centimeter-thick multilayered structures of microorganisms, mainly bacteria, archaea, fungi, and sometimes these mats are enriched with protozoans.
31
Archaeons vs bacteria?
Bacteria contain peptidoglycan in the cell wall; archaea do not.
32
cytoskeleton
a network of fibers extending through cytoplasm that provides mechanical support & maintains the cell's shape.
33
phagocytosis
the process by which white blood cells, known as phagocytes, engulf and digest cells - thereby destroying them
34
meiosis
A process in cell division during which the number of chromosomes decreases to half the original number
35
mitosis
Part of cell division in eukaryotic cells in which the nucleus divides eventually producing 2 daughter cells which are genetically identical to the parent cell.
36
polyploid
when an organism has more than two complete sets of chromosomes in its somatic cells.
37
haploid
the term used when a cell has only one set of chromosomes
38
diploid
a cell or organism that has paired chromosomes, one from each parent
39
endosymbiotic theory (mitochondria/chloroplast)
How eukaryotic cells evolved from a prokaryotic cell engulfing another prokaryotic cell. mitochondria and chloroplast in eukaryotic cells were once aerobic bacteria (prokaryote) that were ingested by a large anaerobic bacteria (prokaryote)
40
What is (provide examples):
i) opisthokont. ii) archeplastid
i) a large supergroup of eukaryotes including metazoans and fungi ex.choanoflagellates
ii)the group containing essentially all of the primary algae ex.Rhodophyta
41
What is a choanoflagellate?
a globally distributed group of marine and freshwater protozoans ( one-celled animals)
42
bulk flow (provide examples)
the active transport of molecules throughout an organism's body. Bulk flow is found in simple multicellular organisms, but not unicellular organisms. (frog,fish)
43
cadherins
transmembrane proteins that mediate cell–cell adhesion in animals.
44
plasmodesmata
membrane-lined passages that connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells and allow small molecules to move freely between the two cells.
45
gap junctions
linkage of two adjacent cells consisting of a system of channels extending across a gap from one cell to the other, allowing the passage of ions and small molecules.
46
vascular plant, non vascular plant (examples)
vascular, which do actively control their hydration by drawing up water from the soil. Non-vascular plants lack a specialised vascular system for transporting water and nutrients.
47
crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)
A number of plants have evolved a mechanism to limit water loss whereby they open their stomata to capture CO2 at night when the air is cool, which limits the rate of evaporation. CAM provides a system for overnight storage of CO2, converting CO2 into a form that will not diffuse away.
48
photorespiration
When O2 is the substrate, it results in a net loss of energy and release of CO2, a process called photorespiration.
49
cuticle
the outermost layer of plants, which protects plants against drought, extreme temperatures, UV radiation, chemical attack, mechanical injuries, and pathogen/pest infection.
50
transpiration
Evaporative loss of water vapor from leaves
51
xylem
The inner tissue that transports water from the roots to the leaves.
52
phloem
outer vascular tissue, called phloem, transports carbohydrates from leaves to the rest of the plant body.
53
shoot
The leaves, stem, and reproductive organs collectively form
54
root hair
To absorb water from in between soil particles. Epidermal cells in active areas of the root produce slender outgrowths
55
root Casparian strips
a thin band of hydrophobic material that encircles each cell.
56
angiosperms (main definition and example)
plants produce seeds encased in “fruits,” which include the fruits that you eat, but which also includes plants you might not think of as fruits, such as maple seeds
57
gymnosperms (main definition and example)
Plants that produce seeds that are not enclosed in an ovary. ex.pine tree
58
sporophyte/gametophyte/spores/gametes (as they apply to mosses, gymnosperms and angiosperms):
pollen – what is it?:
gametophyte is attached and nutritionally dependent on sporophyte. Sporophytes are diploid plants. Gametophytes are haploid plants. Sporophytes have two sets of chromosomes. Gametophytes have a single set of chromosomes. Sporophytes reproduce asexually.
59
dendrite:
a fiberlike extension from the cell body of a neuron that receives signals from other nerve cells or from specialized sensory endings; the input end of a nerve cell
60
cell body
contains the nucleus, and provides the life processes of the entire cell. also, integrates the information received by the dendrites
61
axon terminal
end of axon and beginning of junction with other cells where messages are transferred via chemicals called neurotransmitters; transfers to dendrite
62
axon hillock
the junction of the nerve cell body and its axon, which imitates an action potential
63
synapse
a junction through which the axon terminal of a nerve cell communicates with a neighboring cell
64
myelin
Glial cells form multiple lipid-rich layers or sheaths, Myelin gives many nerves their glistening white appearance
65
resting membrane potential
the cell’s membrane voltage is negative on its inside relative to its outside.
66
action potential
A brief membrane electrical signal transmitted from the cell body one or more axons. An action potential is a brief electrical signal transmitted from the cell body along one or more axon branches
67
thermoreceptors
respond to heat and cold. help to control metabolism and patterns of blood flow, regulating body temperature by regulating rates of heat loss and gain.
68
chemoreceptors
respond to molecules that bind to specific protein receptors on the cell membrane.
69
nociceptors
pain receptors, have dendrites in the skin and connective tissues of the body. These sensory receptors respond when exposed to an excessive mechanical, thermal, or chemical stimulus.
70
mechanoreceptors
respond to physical deformations of their membrane produced by touch, stretch, pressure, motion, and sound.
71
major components of inner ear
small bones in middle ear that help amplify the waves that strike the tympanic membrane
(Malleus)
(Incus)
(Stapes)
72
tympanic membrane
It separates the outer ear from the middle ear. When sound waves reach the tympanic membrane they cause it to vibrate. The vibrations are then transferred to the tiny bones in the middle ear.
73
oval window
membrane-covered opening from the middle ear to the cochlea of the inner ear. Sound waves cause vibration of the tympanic membrane and the ossicles transmit those vibrations to the oval window, which leads to movement of fluid within the cochlea and activation of receptors for hearing.
74
organ of Corti
The primary function of the organ of Corti is the transduction of auditory signals. Sound waves enter the ear via the auditory canal and cause vibration of the tympanic membrane.
75
Opsin
A photosensitive protein that converts the energy of light photons into electrical signals in the receptor cells.
76
Functions of the brain region: cerebellum
The outer left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex.
77
Functions of the brain region:
cerebral cortex
language, memory, reasoning, thought, learning, decision-making, emotion, intelligence and personality.
78
Functions of the brain regions:
occipital lobe
is located behind the parietal lobe, at the back of the brain.
79
skeletal muscle
connect to the body skeleton to move the animal’s limbs and torso
80
smooth muscle cells
found in the walls of arteries to regulate blood flow, in the respiratory system to control airflow, and in the digestive and excretory systems to transport food and waste.x
81
cardiac muscle cells
contract to pump blood
82
Troponin, actin
The arrival of a nerve impulse initiates a chain of events that leads to a change in the conformation of a second protein, called troponin.
Actin is a highly abundant intracellular protein present in all eukaryotic cells and has a pivotal role in muscle contraction as well as in cell movements
83
Tropomyosin
a protein of muscle that forms a complex with troponin regulating the interaction of actin and myosin in muscular contraction.
84
calcium ions
calcium atoms that have gained or lost electrons, changing their charge and their reactivity as well. They play an important role in signal transduction pathways, where they act as a second messenger, in neurotransmitter release from neurons, in contraction of all muscle cell types, and in fertilization.
85
the sarcoplasmic reticulum
specialized form of the endoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells, dedicated to calcium ion (Ca2+) handling, necessary for muscle contraction and relaxation.
86
T tubule
extensions of the cell membrane that penetrate into the center of skeletal and cardiac muscle cells.
87
Z disc
thin filaments are attached to protein backbones called Z discs
88
the pituitary gland
pea-sized,'master gland' as the hormones it produces control so many different processes in the body. It senses the body's needs and sends signals to different organs and glands throughout the body to regulate their function and maintain an appropriate environment.
89
the thyroid gland
butterfly-shaped organ located in the base of your neck. It releases hormones that control metabolism
90
the parathyroid glands
four small glands of the endocrine system which regulate the calcium in our bodies
91
the adrenal glands
produce hormones that help regulate your metabolism, immune system, blood pressure, response to stress and other essential functions.
92
the pineal gland
A tiny organ in the cerebrum that produces melatonin.
93
hypothalamus
the main route by which nervous system signals are transmitted to the vertebrate endocrine system. The job of the hypothalamus is to transmit these signals to the pituitary gland,
94
epinephrine
plays an important role in your body's “fight-or-flight” response.
95
oxytocin
is a natural hormone that manages key aspects of the female and male reproductive systems, including labor and delivery and lactation, as well as aspects of human behavior.
96
glucagon
control glucose levels in the blood
97
Insulin
a hormone that lowers the level of glucose in the blood.
98
Gas exchange: what is countercurrent exchange, and countercurrent multiplier?
In the loop of Henle, active transport of electrolytes creates a concentration gradient, which is then multiplied because the descending and ascending limbs move in parallel but in opposite directions. While countercurrent exchangers maintain a concentration gradient, countercurrent multipliers generate them.
99
What are the functions of the main chambers (atria/ventricle) and major arteries of the heart?
upper chambers, the right and left atria, receive incoming blood. The lower chambers, the more muscular right and left ventricles, pump blood out of the heart. The heart valves, which keep blood flowing in the right direction, are gates at the chamber openings.
100
Endotherm, ectotherm – main differences
An ectotherm (reptile/amphibian) relies primarily on its external environment to regulate the temperature of its body. Endotherms (birds) are able to regulate their body temperatures by producing heat within the body.
101
Main function of foregut
includes the mouth, esophagus, and stomach or crop, which serves as an initial storage and digestive chamber.
102
Main function of midgut
which includes the small intestine, where the remainder of digestion and most nutrient absorption takes place.
103
Main function of hindgut
which includes the large intestine and rectum.
104
Role in digestion: bile, liver, pancreas, stomach, gallbladder, esophagus, jejunum, ileum, duodenum, large intestine,
Duodenum: more digestion
Jejunum: absorption
Ileum: absorption
Liver/gallbladder – bile (fat absorption)
Pancreas – lipase, trypsin, bicarbonate
105
What is suspension filter feeding?
in which water with food suspended in it is passed through a sieve-like structure, is the most common form of food captured by animals.
106
What is osmosis, how is it affected by solutes?
selectively permeable membrane allows movement of water but not solutes. Water moves by osmosis from a region of lower to higher solute concentration. Net movement of water stops when osmotic pressure equals hydrostatic pressure due to gravity.
107
glomerulus
a tuft of capillaries, with blood entering by an afferent (“toward”) arteriole and leaving by an afferent (“away”) arteriole. These porous capillaries form a tufted loop called a glomerulus.
108
Bowman's capsule
The tuft of capillaries is encased in a membranous sac called Bowman’s capsule
109
renal tubules
Small structures in the kidney that filter the blood and produce the urine
110
collecting ducts:
twisting tube that collects urine from the nephrons
111
nephron
million filtering units--the three basic steps of excretion and osmoregulation: Filtration of blood, Reabsorption from the renal tubule back to the bloodstream, Secretion of additional wastes by the renal tubules
112
medulla/cortex/pelvis
Adrenal cortex: The outer part of the gland produces hormones that are vital to life, such as cortisol (which helps regulate metabolism and helps your body respond to stress) and testosterone (which helps control blood pressure)
Adrenal medulla: the inner part of an adrenal gland, controls hormones that initiate the flight or fight response.
Renal pelvis: The area at the center of the kidney. Urine collects here and is funneled into the ureter, the tube that connects the kidney to the bladder
113
proximal convoluted tubule
The filtrate initially moves into the first portion of the renal tubule, the proximal convoluted tubule. Here, electrolytes and other nutrients that the organism requires are reabsorbed into the blood.
114
distal convoluted tubule
one of the main sites of secretion. The distal convoluted tubule also participates in the regulation of key electrolytes, such as potassium, sodium, and calcium.
115
loop of henle
creates a concentration gradient because the two limbs of the loop of Henle run in parallel but in opposite directions, and they differ in their permeability to water and ability to actively transport electrolytes.
116
antidiuretic hormone
The water permeability of the collecting ducts is controlled by the peptide hormone antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also called vasopressin, which is secreted by the posterior pituitary gland.
117
uterus
a hollow organ with thick, muscular walls that is adapted to support the developing embryo if fertilization occurs and to deliver the baby during birth.
118
cervix
end of the uterus
119
vagina
birth canal
120
ovary
a female reproductive organ in which ova or eggs are produced
121
fallopian tube or oviduct
fallopian tubes have featherlike projections on their ends that help channel the egg into the tube and not into the abdominal cavity.
122
ovulation
marks the end of the follicular phase and beginning of the luteal phase.
123
luteinizing hormone
Luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone, which are produced by the pituitary gland, promote ovulation and stimulate the ovaries to produce estrogen and progesterone
124
follicle stimulating hormone
Luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone, which are produced by the pituitary gland, promote ovulation and stimulate the ovaries to produce estrogen and progesterone
125
estrogen
Estrogen and progesterone stimulate the uterus and breasts to prepare for possible fertilization.
126
testosterone
stimulates sperm production in males.
127
progesterone
Estrogen and progesterone stimulate the uterus and breasts to prepare for possible fertilization.
128
gastrulation
a highly coordinated set of cell movements that leads to a fundamental reorganization of the embryo, is the second key developmental process in embryogenesis.
129
ectoderm
becomes the outer layer of the skin and nervous system.
130
mesoderm
makes up the circulatory system, muscle, and bone.
131
Endoderm
becomes the lining of the digestive tract and lungs.
132
phagocytes
type of immune cell that can surround and kill microorganisms, ingest foreign material, and remove dead cells
133
B cells
B cell development starts in the bone marrow (BM) and continues in the spleen to final maturation.
134
natural killer cells
type of immune cell that has granules (small particles) with enzymes that can kill tumor cells or cells infected with a virus
135
T cells
T-cells come from the bone marrow, and mature in the thymus.
136
mast cells
release histamine, an important contributor to allergic reactions and inflammation.
137
adaptive vs innate immune system
Innate immunity is something already present in the body. Adaptive immunity is created in response to exposure to a foreign substance.
138
opsonization
an immune process which uses opsonins to tag foreign pathogens for elimination by phagocytes.
139
immunological memory
the ability of the immune system to respond more rapidly and effectively to pathogens that have been encountered previously
140
sponge structures: choanocytes, mesohyl, spicules (what are these things)
An interior surface is lined by cells called choanocytes, Spicules are the structural components of a sponge, or the "bricks"
141
cnidarian: gastric cavity, mesoglea, nematocysts, poly, medusa (what are these things)
closed internal gastric cavity, the site of extracellular digestion and excretion
An epidermis and endodermis, developed from a diploblastic embryo, enclosing a gelatinous mass called the mesoglea (“jelly” of jellyfish)
142
gastropods, cephalopods, bivalves - what are these (think of examples)
Gastropods – snails
Cephalopods – octopus, nautilus, squid
Bivalves – clams, oysters, mussels
143
ecdysozoa - what are these (think of examples)
second major group of protostome animals, include eight phyla.Ex. arthropod
144
chordates versus vertebrates – main differences
some chordates do not have a vertebral column whereas all vertebrates have a vertebral column.
145
Chondrichthyes - what are these (think of examples)
cartilaginous fish, sharks
146
Osteichthyes - what are these (think of examples)
bony fish, sea horses
147
hagfish, lampreys – are they chordates, vertebrates or both? What are the main features?
branching craniates are the hagfish and lampreys. Jawless, an elongated, eel-like shape, and do not have any paired fins on their sides.
148
amphibians – how are they adapted to both aquatic and terrestrial life?
amphibians replaced gills with lungs as the respiratory organ. Other adaptations include skin that prevents water loss, eyelids that allow them to adapt to vision outside water
149
niche
profession
150
population
the group of all organisms of the same species
151
community
all the different species at a particular time and place
152
habitat
address
153
ecosystem
the community plus the physical environment.
154
competition
the direct or indirect interaction of organisms that leads to a change in fitness when the organisms share the same resource.
155
symbiosis
Close interactions between species that have evolved over long periods of time
156
commensalism
symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits and the other organism isn't benefited or harmed either way
157
mutualism
Interactions between species do not necessarily pair a gain for one participant with a loss for the other
158
keystone species
Keystone species hold together the complex web of relationships in an ecosystem. Ex. Sea otters
159
primary producers
generate organic compounds that will provide food for other organisms in their local environment.
160
primary consumers:
consume primary producers. Biologists call these organisms herbivores or grazers.
161
secondary consumers
predators or scavengers that feed on primary consumers.
162
ecosystem disturbance and succession
Disturbances have effects on populations of interacting species that are independent of their densities.
a predictable sequence of species that colonize and then transform the community, in what can appear to be a linear process of maturation.
163
Carbon – cycling – what are the major seasonal trends in atmospheric CO2?
The short-term carbon cycle (variations of atmospheric carbon throughout the year and on a timescale of decades) is predominantly driven by biological processes (respiration and photosynthesis), and human activities.
164
How has atmospheric CO2 concentrations change over the last thousand years?
increased substantially since the beginning of the industrial era, rising from an annual average of 280 ppm in the late 1700s to 414 ppm in 2021
165
What are the main drivers of these seasonal and longer term changes?
The seasonal cycle seen in Keeling’s work is explained by the higher rates of photosynthesis in the summer and lower rates in the winter.
