final exam Flashcards
What is sexual identity?
How you define yourself sexually
What is sexual orientation?
A person’s attraction to sexual and romantic love partners
What is sexual behavior?
How you act sexually
Describe the sexual identities and orientations we discussed in class
Bisexual denotes sexual and romantic attraction toward both one’s own and the other sex or gender, sometimes referred to as ambisexual
An asexual identity refers to not being sexually attracted to other people at all
Pansexual identity refers to attraction to people regardless of their sex or gender
A queer identity rejects rigid sexual attraction binaries based on sexuality, gender, or both
LGBTQ - lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer
What is homophobia?
Homophobia is fear, prejudice, and negative acting-out behavior toward people who self-identify or are believed to have sexual identities outside of heterosexuality
What belief systems have perpetrated homophobia in society throughout history? In what way?
Homophobia has some roots in Judaism and the Old and New Testaments, with these beliefs being perpetuated by Christianity and the Catholic Church since the Middle Ages
Cast as deviant, sinful, and even criminal for centuries
What is conversion therapy? Why is it so problematic?
“Conversion therapy” was used to change LGBTQ people’s gender and sexual identities
In the 1920s, gay men were castrated and then given “heterosexual” testicles (implanting a small piece of hypersexual testicle during a hernia operation without telling the patient)
Theorized that LGBTQ identities were a psychological disorder and used psychiatric interventions to “cure” people
What evidence do we have that suggests that biological sex is on a continuum?
SRY gene resides on the Y chromosome
It is the master switch that channels the development of the embryo in the male direction
Even if an embryo is XY, if the Y chromosome does not possess a functional copy of the SRY gene, the embryo will develop as a female
A functional SRY gene does not guarantee a completely male phenotype
Mutations in genes involved in sexual development can result in outcomes where the phenotypic/anatomic sex of the individual is mixed
2% of humans are born with differences in sex development (DSD)
DSD - can include differences in genes, hormones, external and internal reproductive organs
What is the difference between gender identity and gender roles?
Gender identities - an internal perception that you are masculine/feminine, man/woman, a combination, or something else
Gender expression or roles - adopting culturally defined masculine or feminine behaviors
What is gender dysphoria?
Gender dysphoria is a clinical term that refers to distress felt by those who are uncomfortable identifying with or behaving according to their culturally assigned and defined gender
Biological sex in animals
Incubation temperature (not genetics) determines sex in some reptiles
Chemical exposure can shift biological sex (Atrazine can completely feminize biologically male frogs)
Fish can shift from female to male in response to the social environment
Sex reversal/change has been observed in amphibians, birds, and non-human mammals
This is much more common than once appreciated, and our static view of humans being either male or female is outdated
Which types of procedures can be classified as gender-affirming procedures?
This can include the construction of a penis (phalloplasty) or a vagina (vaginoplasty), changes to the chest (mastectomy or implants), face (forehead, jaw, and trachea), and voice box (typically feminization through elongating or tightening vocal cords)
Surgery is usually accompanied by masculinizing or feminizing hormone replacement therapy (HRT) that can facilitate these phenotypic transitions.
For men transitioning to women, medications block the action of testosterone.
For women transitioning to men, testosterone is given
What is gender variance?
Gender variance: gender expression falls outside of what is typically considered standard for males and females
Etiology
To explore the causes or the origins of a given phenomena
Biogenetic causes vs socialization
Socialization (the process of learning social skills) - environments in childhood can feminize men - not supported by the research - but there may be some parental influence
Biogenic causes (biological processes) - some evidence for differences in the H-Y antigen (male tissue-specific), but strong evidence against the hormonal basis of gender identity variance, and no replication of studies finding brain differences
Gender variance
gender expression falls outside of what is typically considered standard for males and females
What does “two-spirit” mean? How was it developed?
“Two-spirit” is a term meant to bridge indigenous and Western cultures to refer to a person who embodies both male and female spirits
This term is intended to be a pan-Native American term
What does the term nadle mean for the Navajo?
They also recognize at least three gender statuses: men (boys), women (girls), and nadle
The nadle were ascribed their position based on ambiguous genitals (intersex) or could be “nadle pretenders” who displayed interests ascribed to the other gender
Therefore, either genital or psychic/behavioral ambiguity qualified one for the status
What does the term hijras mean? How are these individuals viewed in Hinduism?
Hijras are usually born as men (although some may be born intersex) and become transformed through a ritualized surgery in which the penis and testicles are removed
After the surgery, hijras typically adopt the demeanor, behavior, and clothing of women, take feminine names, and use female kinship terms for each other
However, they are not “women,” as their behavior contrasts with Hindu conceptions of womanhood
Although hijras are feminine in many aspects, they are not considered women because Hindu womanhood implies marriage and children
The Northern Triangle
El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala
What political factors have led trans-Latina asylum seekers to leave their countries of origin?
Violence, forced gang recruitment, extortion, poverty, and lack of economic opportunities
With no healthcare and no work, gang influence permeates life
LGBTQ individuals are migrating north, seeking a better life
More than 70 countries criminalize LGBTQ people
What is the difference between discrimination and persecution?
Discrimination is the unjust or prejudical treatment of different categories of people, especially on the grounds of race, age, or sex
Persecution is characterized by the greater seriousness of the mistreatment, which typically involves violence based on reasons of race, religion, nationality, political opinion or membership of a particular social group
What is “structural violence”?
Structural violence: social structures - economic, political, legal, religious, and cultural - that stop individuals, groups, and societies from reaching their full potential
What is asylum, and how do you receive it?
“Asylum” refers to the protection by a sovereign entity from persecution in the country of origin
To get asylum, the person has to prove that they were persecuted on account of at least one of five protected grounds: race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or particular social group
Why can the risks that trans-Latina migrants face when seeking asylum be characterized as “intersectional”?
Transgender Latina, migrants who are facing extreme stress during the process of migration, at the border, in detention centers, and once they are across
Unsurprisingly, there is a greater risk that they turn to prostitution and drugs to make money and cope with the stress they are bearing
Trans women were detained on average more than twice the average length of detainment of all immigrants held in ICE custody during the fiscal year 2017
Intersectionality
Intersectionality is the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and gender as they apply to a given individual or group
What are PMS and PMDD? What are their symptoms and causes?
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) has a wide variety of signs and symptoms, including mood swings, tender breasts, food cravings, fatigue, irritability and depression.
It’s estimated that as many as 3 of every 4 menstruating women have experienced some form of premenstrual syndrome
Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) is a very severe form of premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
It causes a range of emotional and physical symptoms every month during the week or two before your period
It is sometimes referred to as ‘severe PMS’
PMDD occurs during the luteal phase of your menstrual cycle
What is PCOS? What are the symptoms and causes?
Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is a hormonal disorder common among women of reproductive age
The ovaries may develop numerous small collections of fluid (follicles/cysts) and fail to release eggs regularly
Cysts can secrete androgens (male sex hormones) which cause a range of physical symptoms
The androgens can lead women with PCOS to experience missed periods, weight gain, acne, excess hair, and infertility
How does birth control work? What options for birth control exist?
Hormonal contraceptives include the pill, the patch, and the vaginal ring and can contain estrogen and progestin
These hormones can prevent pregnancy in three main ways
The hormonal contraceptive usually stops the body from ovulating (combination pills)
They also change the cervical mucus to make it difficult for the sperm to go through the cervix and find an egg (mini-pill using only progesterone)
They can also prevent pregnancy by changing the lining of the womb (endometrium), so it’s unlikely the fertilized egg will be implanted (mini-pill too)
What did Ford and Beach find on sex?
Integrated information from 191 cultures:
Most frequent positions for coitus included the “missionary” and women sitting on men
Women could generally reach orgasm but not always through intercourse (more likely in positions other than missionary)
70% of American couples did not practice other positions besides missionary
On average lasts 5 min or less
Average male orgasm is reached in less than 2 min and female orgasm in under 5 min
Ejaculation in less than 1 min is considered precocious (too early)
In addition to coitus, all studied societies practiced “foreplay” and same-gender interactions, as well as oral, manual, and anal activities
Ford and Beach concluded that there is a “basic mammalian capacity” for same-sex behavior
What is BDSM? How can it be seen as a form of counter-culture?
Bondage (is the practice of consensually tying, binding, or restraining a partner)
Discipline (the practice in which the dominant sets rules which the submissive is expected to obey. When rules of expected behavior are broken, punishment is often used as a means of disciplining) + dominant (holding power)
Submissive (relinquishing power) + Sadism (the tendency to derive pleasure, especially sexual gratification, from inflicting pain, suffering, or humiliation on others)
Masochism (the tendency to derive pleasure, especially sexual gratification, from one’s own pain or humiliation)
The enactment of BDSM scenes can be viewed as a form of counter-culture - values and norms of behavior that differ substantially from those of mainstream society - where people can upend unequal power distributions
Hormone replacement theory
For transgender men, exogenous testosterone can support virilization - the development of masculine physical characteristics.
This includes deepened voice, cessation of menses, clitorial growth, increased muscle mass, and hair growth in androgen-dependent areas, including facial hair
Breast tissue may lose granularity, but generally does not lose mass or semi circumference
For transgender women, exogenous estrogen can be used to support feminization - the development of feminine physical characteristics
This includes changing fat distribution, including breast formation, and reducing male pattern hair growth
HRT can also shrink the penis and testicle and reduce libido, erections, and ejaculate
What is detransitioning? Why do people do it?
Detransition - is the cessation or reversal of a transgender identification or gender transition, whether by social, legal, or medical means
Reasons for detransitioning vary - including health-related concerns, finding that transition did not alleviate gender dysphoria, an unaffirming social environment, financial concerns, or political, religious, or philosophical disagreements
What are kinks?
Kink - non-conventional sexual practices, concepts, or fantasies
What is globalization? What are the effects of globalization?
Global movements and exchanges
This can refer to human beings, goods, and services, capital, technologies, or cultural practices
Results in increased interactions between different regions and populations around the globe
What is industrialization?
Industrialization - reorganization of the economy for the purpose of manufacturing goods
How have globalization and industrialization changed access to different parts of the world?
Positive aspects include increased access to:
Foods
Clothing
Cars
Art and other material culture from around the world
Negative aspects include:
Outsourcing of work (sweatshops for clothing)
“Brain drain” (professionals from non-industrialized countries to work in fields such as medicine and engineering)
Trafficking of illicit substances and people
What is trafficking? Which types of trafficking did we discuss in class?
Human trafficking refers to the act of recruiting, transporting, transferring, and/or harboring/receiving people
Types of trafficking
Service-based trafficking
Hospitality (tips but no wages and threat of ID being taken away)
Cleaning services (dangerous chemicals, wages confiscated, and forced to work off debts)
Landscaping, carnivals, restaurants, health and beauty (low wages, long hours, relocations, and dangerous exposures)
Industrial labor trafficking
Extractives and construction (boom and bust labor)
Factories (sweat shops)
Agricultural, fishing, and meat processing (undocumented workers, pushed for speed, working in dangerous conditions)
Drug and sex trafficking
What is trafficking? Which types of trafficking did we discuss in class?
Human trafficking refers to the act of recruiting, transporting, transferring, and/or harboring/receiving people
Types of trafficking
Service-based trafficking
Hospitality (tips but no wages and threat of ID being taken away)
Cleaning services (dangerous chemicals, wages confiscated, and forced to work off debts)
Landscaping, carnivals, restaurants, health, and beauty (low wages, long hours, relocations, and dangerous exposures)
Industrial labor trafficking
Extractives and construction (boom and bust labor)
Factories (sweatshops)
Agricultural, fishing, and meat processing (undocumented workers, pushed for speed, working in dangerous conditions)
Drug and sex trafficking
What factors have led to women from Myanmar being trafficked into sex work?
Burmese people have been impoverished by mismanagement and warfare, so people’s livelihoods have been undermined by the international war on drugs - specifically on heroin
In Myanmar, there were crackdowns on the cultivation of poppy plants
This undermined women’s roles and placed greater pressure on women to pursue other opportunities to support their families
What is sex work?
Sex work is a broad category
It includes prostitution, pornography, phone sex operators, exotic dancers, massage parlor workers, and dominatrix workers (women taking a “dominant” role in BDSM sex work)
Services are offered over the internet, in brothels, on the street, and through “call work”
“Call work” refers to going to a location picked by the customer
What is prostitution?
Prostitution - is the exchange of sex (left undefined) for money, goods, or services
The common denominator is money
What are the laws in New Zealand surrounding prostitution and sex work?
Prostitution was decriminalized in 2003
Brothel-keeping, living off the proceeds of someone else’s prostitution, and street solicitation are legal in New Zealand and have been since the Prostitution Reform Act 2003 came into effect
Coercion of sex workers is illegal
5 years after the Prostitution Reform Act 2003 was put into action, an analysis was conducted that found that the sex industry had not increased in size
90% of sex workers believe the PRA gave them employment, legal, and health safety rights
64% found it easier to refuse clients
57% said police attitudes to sex workers changed for the better
What are the laws in Sweden surrounding prostitution and sex work?
In 1999 the Swedish Model of Law criminalized the demand for paid sex, pimping, procuring, and trafficking
The idea is that sex work and trafficking can be eliminated by “ending demand” and views sex work as a form of violence against women
An analysis found that street prostitution had been cut by more than half since 1995
The number of men admitting to having purchased sex was down more than 40%
However, stigma remains widespread, making it difficult for women access social serves and the police and putting sex workers into more precarious positions
In the 1990s, trafficking was not an issue, and the women selling sex were overwhelmingly Swedish
Can you describe the arguments of the pro- and anti-prostitution groups in Canada?Polarization with prostitution
In 2012, Canada made pimping and brothels legal
However, communication for the purpose of sex work was illegal
Opponents of this change asserted that this increased the danger of marginalized women, because it was only the upper echelon that made it into brothels
In 2014, these laws were reversed and criminal penalties were enacted for purchasing sexual services anywhere
What is an STI?
STI - infection acquired through the transmission of bodily fluids from an infected individual to another person through sexual contact
Can be viral, bacterial, fungal, or parasitic
Which STIs did we discuss in class?
HPV (human papillomavirus) is a virus - that can cause genital warts or cervical abnormalities
Gonorrhea (“the clap”) is a bacterial infection - burning sensation during urination in men and can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease in women
Yeast infections are fungal, many causes but can be transmitted through sexual contact
Trichomoniasis - a parasite that is often asymptomatic in men but can lead to discharge, swelling, and vulvar fissures (cracks) in women
How does HIV infect and replicate inside the body?
HIV cannot replicate on its own, so to make new copies of itself, it must infect cells of the human immune system, called CD4 cells
CD4 cells are white blood cells that play a central role in responding to infections in the body
Over time, CD4 cells are killed by HIV, and the body’s ability to fight some types of infection begins to decline.
This leads to the development of serious opportunistic infections
Experiencing a collection of these infections is the most advanced stage of HIV, which is when a person is said to have AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
What is an STD? What are the different types?
STDs are physical effects that happen to one’s body once infected with an STI
Acute effects - sudden onset and typically rapid course (fevers and sores)
Chronic effects - incurable can affect people’s functioning but may be treatable (fertility problems)
Terminal effects - if left untreated, will lead to death
Who were the 4 groups most affected by HIV?
People with hemophilia, who received contaminated blood through transfusions
Men who have sex with men, who reported higher incidences of the condition
Heroin users and other people who used injectable drugs
Haitians or people of Haitian origin, as many cases of AIDS were reported in Haiti
What is HAART? CD4 cells? Protease inhibitors?
HAART prevents the HIV virus from making copies of itself and limits how much virus is in the body by acting as a protease inhibitor
HAART targets protease, which is an enzyme that allows HIV to replicate
This reduces “viral load” and can prevent the development of AIDS
Protease is an enzyme in the body that’s important for HIV replication
Protease inhibitor drugs block the action of protease enzymes
CD4 cells are white blood cells that play a central role in responding to infections in the body
What is the difference between endemic and epidemic?
Endemic - means a disease is spreading in a community at the normal or expected level
Epidemic - an unexpected increase in the number of disease cases in a specific geographical area
What is the difference between a disease and an illness?
A disease has a specific result on a body part or function. Illness can be a perceived notion of unwellness or derive from self-diagnosis. Disease must be diagnosed by a medical expert. Illness can fall under a generalized periscope of health maladies
Who was Paul Farmer? What kind of anthropologist was he?
Paul Farmer Medical, a founder of Partners in Health (PIH), medical doctor and medical anthropologist
Partners in Health
Partners in Health is a Boston-based nonprofit healthcare organization that responds to the moral imperative to provide high-quality health care globally to those who need it most
Partners in Health helped make HAART economically feasible and works to empower CHW who support adherence
What is “structural violence,” and how did he use this concept in his work?
“Structural violence” - is a term coined by Johan Galtung (sociologist) and liberation during the 1960s
Describes social structures - economic, political, legal, religious, and cultural - that stop individual, groups, and societies from reaching their full potential
Because they seem ordinary, certain “structures” such as - disparate access to resources, political power, education, health care, and legal standing - are almost invisible
What are proximal and distal interventions?
“Distal” interventions - performed late in the process, when patients are already sick - include antibiotics or other medicines (after the fact)
“Proximal” interventions - try to prevent illness through efforts such as vaccination, improved water, and housing quality, it recognizes that disease is not just individual behavior but rather related to social factors such as poverty, gender, inequality, and racism
How did practitioners in Baltimore address HIV interventions?
Researchers in Baltimore sought to address racial disparities in AIDS and death
Addressed economic barriers to care (transportation costs etc.), comorbid conditions (drug addiction to mental illness), implemented community-based care (more convenient and socially acceptable for patients)
Disparities based on race, gender, injection-drug use, and socioeconomic status largely disappeared in the study population where these “proximal” interventions were initiated
What are CHW’s? How can CHW’s make global health interventions more successful?
They understand local dynamics and beliefs, which can make the uptake of interventions challenging
Enhance trust, which improves healthcare access
Enhance communication between organizations and communities
They provide community and emotional support
They can check in with patients, supporting adherence
Why was there a conflict between the Tutsi and Hutu in Rwanda?
Germans first colonized Rwanda in 1894
Germans thought that the Tutsi people had more European characteristics, such as lighter skin and a taller build, and put them in roles of responsibility
In 1933, the Belgians solidified the categories of “Tutsi” and “Hutu” by mandating that every person was to have an identity card that labeled them either Tutsi, Hutu, or Twa
The animosity between the two groups grew over the decades, and when the president of Rwanda was killed in 1994 (he was a Hutu), the Tutsis were blamed
How can HIV be passed from mother to child?
During pregnancy, HIV can pass through the placenta and infect the fetus. During labor and delivery, the baby may be exposed to the virus from a woman’s blood and other fluids. When a woman goes into labor, the amniotic sac breaks (her water breaks). Once this occurs, the risk of transmitting HIV to the baby increases
Many women gave birth to HIV-positive babies and struggled to exist
They lived with deep psychological trauma and serious health needs, including the need for HIV/AIDS treatment, yet little to nothing was available to them
