Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
T/F: Speciation always involves geographical separation of some of some kind between the two organisms.
A
False
2
Q
T/F: phylogenetic trees based on molecular evidence (DNA) always depict the true evolutionary relationships between taxa.
A
False
3
Q
T/F: Males are distinguished from females by the size of their gametes; males have small mobile gametes, whereas females have larger gametes.
A
True
4
Q
T/F: Muller’s ratchet explains the increase rate of mutation that occurs in asexual compared to sexual organisms.
A
False
5
Q
If you say that a chipmunk has greater evolutionary fitness than another chipmunk in the same population, you mean that the animal:
A) has a longer life
B) Is able to mate more frequently
C) is able to dominate other chipmunks to gain access to food
D) has more offspring that survive and reproduce themselves.
E) all of the options listed are correct
A
D. Has more offspring that survive and reproduce themselves.
6
Q
Which of the following statements best summarizes evolution by natural selection as it is viewed today?
A) Evolution by natural selection represents the result of selection according to the acquired characteristics hypothesis (individuals can change their phenotypes and pass those down to the next generation)
B) Evolution by natural selection is the production of adaptations that need present and anticipated needs
C) Evolution by natural selection is the descent of humans from the present-day great apes.
D) Evolution by natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of the most fit phenotypes.
A
D. evolution by natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of the most fit phenotypes.
7
Q
Natural selection that increases the the frequency of a favorable allele is called:
A) positive selection
B) balancing selection
C) Sexual selection
D) Negative selection
A
A. Positive Selection
8
Q
Wikelski and Romero (2008) found that large marine iguanas had higher reproductive success than smaller iguanas did. However, the large iguanas were generally in poor body condition because they could not eat enough; at higher temperatures, their foraging efficiency improved, allowing them to eat more. This, Wikelski and Romero hypothesized that iguana size will ________ as global warming gradually increases air and water temperatures in the Galápagos Islands.
A) increase
B) decrease
C) stabilize around the mean body size
Remain unchanged (it is not clear that body size increases fitness)
If the Wikelski and Romero hypothesis is correct, what type of (or mode) of selection would occur?
A
A) increase
Directional selection would occur
9
Q
A snowshoe hare produces a white coat during the winter, allowlist to better hide from predators. As a result, it has thrived and over time a majority of snowshoe hares in the population also produce white coats in the winter. Which of the statements is/are true? Select all that apply.
A) The white-coated hare has higher fitness than other hares that do not change coat colors
B) the white-coated hare has a competitive advantage in it’s environment.
C) The new population of hares has adapted via genetic drift.
D) The alleles for a white winter coat increased over time.
A
A, B & D
10
Q
In regions where malaria is prevalent, individuals who are heterozygous for the sickle cell allele have a selective advantage since they are resistant to malaria but only have minor anemia. This is an example of what?
A) directional selection where the sickle cell allele will increase to fixation in the population
B) disruptive selection where individuals with only one copy of the allele will have higher fitness compared to individuals with a copy of both alleles.
C) balancing selection where both alleles will be maintained in the population
D) none of these answer options is correct
A
C) balancing selection where both alleles will be maintained in the population
11
Q
Which of the following statements about mutations is false?
A) mutations are the ultimate source of genetic variation.
B) mutations alone are not a strong evolutionary force to change the characteristics of a population
C) even though mutations could be beneficial, most mutations, most mutations are neutral or deleterious.
D) Perfect fidelity (limiting the number of mutations) is always most advantageous for all organisms.
A
D) Perfect fidelity (limiting the number of mutations) is always most advantageous for all organisms.
12
Q
Which of the following answer choices are reasons why a population on an island might have less genetic diversity throughout the genome than a population on a nearby mainland? Select all that apply.
A) island populations most likely have frequent gene flow with the mainland population, which restores lost alleles.
B) The original colonizers of the island do not contain all of the genetic diversity of the larger mainland population.
C) Alleles may have been lost through random chance in the smaller island population
D) habitats on the island are the same as the mainland, so natural selection would favor the same alleles.
A
B & C
13
Q
Select all of the statements below that are true about evolutionary processes:
A) Even though genetic drift is random, it typically lowers the fitness of small populations.
B) mutations typically increase the fitness of a population.
C) Gene flow can increase or decrease the fitness and genetic variation of a population.
D) Natural selection always increases fitness of a population by maintaining genetic variation.
A
A and C
14
Q
A researcher is studying two populations of the same species by comparing the genetic sequence of a gene. In one of those two populations, a neutral (silent) mutation has occurred and that allele has gone to fixation. Given this information, what evolutionary force can you predict is in operation on the mutated allele that went to fixation?
A) genetic drift
B) natural selection
C) negative selection
D) gene flow
A
A) genetic drift
15
Q
Which of the following factors are most likely to pay off (counteract) the 2-fold cost of sex?
A) climate change
B) drought
C) Floods
D) parasites
A
D) parasites
16
Q
Genetic recombination is essential for all of life; however, prokaryotic cells are asexual. How can prokaryotic cells achieve genetic recombination?
A
Horizontal Gene Transfer
17
Q
Genetic mutations in asexually reproducing organisms lead to more evolutionary change than to genetic mutations in sexually reproducing ones because __________.
A) asexually reproducing organisms, but not sexually reproducing organisms, pass all mutations on to their offspring.
B) asexually reproducing organisms devote more time and energy to the process of reproduction than do sexually reproducing organisms.
C) sexually reproducing organisms can produce more offspring in a given time than can asexually reproducing organisms.
D) more genetic variation is present in organisms that reproduce asexually than is present in those that reproduce sexually.
A
A) asexually reproducing organisms, but not sexually reproducing organisms, pass all mutations on to their offspring
18
Q
List some of the ways sexual reproducing organisms can reduce the 2-fold cost of sex.
A
-High levels of parental care
- sexual and asexual life cycles
- sex switching
19
Q
Sympatric/allopathic: Two mice populations in the same mountain range never breed because one population is nocturnal (active at night) and one is diurnal (active during the day).
A
Sympatric speciation
20
Q
Sympatric/allopathic: some insects get blown in a storm to a new mountain range, where they lay eggs.
A
Allopatric speciation
21
Q
Sympatric/allopathic: a mountain range raises and divides a population of lizards.
A
Allopatric speciation
22
Q
Sympatric/allopathic: radiation near Chernobyl increases mutation rates, causing an increase in polyploidization
A
Sympatric speciation
23
Q
True/false: all organisms use the same genetic code (with only a few minor exceptions)
A
True
24
Q
True/false: RNA molecules can store genetic information and can also act as enzymes.
A
True
25
True/false: stromatolites are only fossils and are not found anywhere on earth today.
False
26
True/false: since enzymes are required for most biological processes, like copying the DNA, proteins were most likely the first macromolecule to evolve.
False
27
True/false: all three domains of life share many of the same biochemical features, this is strong evidence for a last universal common ancestor (LCA).
True
28
True/false: The RNA world concept states that during early stages in the evolution of life, various forms of RNA may have carried out most of the biochemical functions that DNA and protein complete today.
True.
29
What type of organism gains energy from chemical bonds and can make their own organic molecules?
A) photoheterotrophs
B) photoautotrophs
C) chemoautotrophs
D) chemohetertrophs
C) chemoautotrophs
30
What type of metabolism are unique (only found in bacteria and archaea? Select all that apply.
A) photoautotrophy
B) chemoautotrophy
C) Photoheterotrophy
D) Chemoheterotrophy
C) photoheterotrophy
31
Which of the following is NOT a hypothesis for the origin of life?
A) organic molecules arrived on earth via meteorites.
B) energy from lightning combined with gases in the ancient atmosphere to produce organic molecules
C) life spontaneously formed in a mixture of O2, warm water, and oxygen
D) Life began in thermal vents at the bottom of the ocean.
C) life spontaneously formed in a mixture of O2, warm water, and oxygen
32
Which of the following are TRUE regarding bacteria and archaea? Select all that apply.
A) bacteria and archaea were present on earth billions of years ago but they are not widely abundant today
B) bacteria and archaea are prokaryotes that lack nuclei, organelles and meiosis
C) some prokaryotes can live at temperatures above 100C, while others can live at temperatures below freezing (0C)
D) archaea and bacteria are integral components of human bodies and the prokaryotic diversity on our skin and in our intestines and are distinctly different.
B, C, and D
33
Which event happened earlier: Cyanobacteria or the evolution of anoxygenic photosynthesis
The evolution of anoxygenic photosynthesis
34
Which event happened earlier: Cyanobacteria or first aerobic bacteria
Cyanobacteria
35
Which event happened earlier: Eukarya obtained mitochondria or first aerobic bacteria
First aerobic bacteria
36
Which event happened earlier: Eukarya obtained mitochondria or oxygen in the atmosphere.
Oxygen in the atmosphere
37
Which event happened earlier: Eukarya obtained mitochondria or Eukarya obtained chloroplasts
Eukarya obtained mitochondria
38
Which event happened earlier: first land plans or first green algae
First green algae.
39
Oxygenic photosynthesis in Cyanobacteria ______.
A) is derived from features found in all mitochondria.
B) was the first type of any photosynthesis to evolve
C) is characterized by two photosystems integrated together and reflecting evolutionary origins from purple and green sulfur bacteria.
D) is based on the principle that oxygen (O2) is critical to the formation of water During photosynthetic process.
C) is characterized by two photosystems integrated together and reflecting evolutionary origins from purple and green sulfur bacteria.
40
Which of the following statements about (O2) levels in the atmosphere are correct? Select all that apply.
A) in the last 2 billion years, both algae and Cyanobacteria have contributed to changes in atmospheric O2.
B) increased atmospheric O2 was a prerequisite to an increase in ozone. Evolution of animals and plants on to land was not possible until there was ozone in the upper atmosphere.
C) increased O2 levels during the Carboniferous period were the result of high algal photosynthetic activities.
D) mitochondrial respiration was not possible until atmospheric O2 levels reached 21%.
A and B
41
Which of the following statements about the global carbon carbon cycle are TRUE? Select all that apply.
A) only geological processes affect the flux of carbon from one stock to another
B) photosynthesis is able to offset the amount of carbon humans are adding to the carbon stock in the atmosphere
C) the microbial loop in the ocean is the short term balance of heterotrophic and autotrophic organisms releasing and removing CO2 from the atmosphere.
D) deforestation and other changes in land use result in a net addition of CO2 to the atmosphere.
C and D
42
________ is the process where gaseous Nitrogen, N2, is converted to ammonia. This process is carried out by the enzyme Nitrogenase in ______( choose eukaryotes or prokaryotes). The enzyme Nitrogenase is inhibited by _______(choose oxygen or carbon dioxide.
Nitrogen fixation;
Prokaryotes;
Oxygen
43
Name some ways that plants can obtain nitrogen in a form they are able to use.
1) Nitrate or ammonia directly from the soil.
2) symbiotic relationship with fungi like mycorrhizae and gain nitrogen from them
3) symbiotic relationship with bacteria like rhizobia and gain nitrogen from them
44
True/false: DNA is present within mitochondria as well as within chloroplasts
True
45
True/false: plant cells can fix nitrogen with a plant version of the Nitrogenase enzyme.
False
46
True/false: Nitrogen is abundant in the atmosphere as N2 gas, but this form is not accessible to most organisms.
True
47
True/false: Cyanobacteria are capable of both nitrogen fixation and oxygenic photosynthesis.
True
48
True/false: Eukaryotes were the first organisms to use aerobic metabolism
False
49
Which branch(es) of life is capable of N2 fixation? (Bacteria, archaea, or Eukarya) select all that apply.
Bacteria and archaea
Eukarya cannot do this.
50
Which branch of life has a membrane bound nucleus? (Bacteria, archaea, or Eukarya) select all that apply.
Only Eukarya has a membrane bound nucleus.
51
Which branch(es) of life has/have linear DNA? (Bacteria, archaea, or Eukarya) select all that apply.
Only Eukarya has linear DNA.
Archaea and bacteria have circular DNA.
52
Chloroplasts were once free-living __________. Mitochondria were once free-living _________.
Cyanobacteria; proteobacteria
53
Which of the following statements about mitochondria are true? Select all correct answers.
A) all eukaryotes have descended from a common ancestor that had mitochondria.
B) plants have chloroplasts instead of mitochondria
C) mitochondria have their own DNA and can replicate independently from the rest of the cell.
D) mitochondria we’re lost during secondary and tertiary endosymbiosis events.
E) mitochondria use oxygen as an electron acceptor
A, C and E
54
Evidence in support of eukaryote evolution involving both an archaea, and a bacteria include:
A) similarities in morphology
B) the presence of archaea and bacteria genes in the genomes of eukaryotes
C) similarities in the membrane bound nucleus of archaea, bacteria, and eukaryotes
D) The presence of mitochondria in archaea, bacteria, and eukaryotes
B) the presence of archaea and bacteria genes in the genomes of eukaryotes
55
True/false: there is strong evidence that the enzyme rubisco evolved only within the last 20 million years
False
56
True/false: in the history of photoautotrophic organisms, C3 photosynthesis evolved before C4 photosynthesis.
True
57
True/false: ferns and lycopods are capable of C3 photosynthesis.
True
58
True/false: there is strong evidence that photosynthesis was not possible in land plants before the evolution of a vascular system to transport water.
False.
59
Which of the following traits do ALL land plants have? Select all that apply
A) alternation of generations
B) vascular tissue
C) pollen
D) Lignin
E) cuticle
F) chloroplast
G) seeds
A, E and F
60
When did plants first invade land?
A) the evolution of a cuticle was critical to reduce the rate of water loss from the leaf or photosynthetic surface to a dry atmosphere
B) the evolution of the chloroplast first occurred and was critical to offset mitochondrial activities.
C) The fossil evidence suggests that roots were essential to take up water from the soil
D) fossil evidence suggests that the evolution of the stomate occurred after the evolution of a vascular system
A) the evolution of a cuticle was critical to reduce the rate of water loss from the leaf or photosynthetic surface to a dry atmosphere
61
In the process of alternation of generations, the_______
A) sporophyte is haploid and produces gametes
B) sporophyte is diploid and produces spores
C) gametophyte is haploid and produces spores
D) gametophyte is diploid and produces gametes
E) spores unite to form a zygote
B) sporophyte is diploid and produces spores
62
What is the predominant form (gametophyte or sporophyte) and the ploidy (haploid or diploid of algae
Gametophyte
Haploid
63
What is the predominant form (gametophyte or sporophyte) and the ploidy (haploid or diploid of a bryophyte?
Gametophyte haploid
64
What is the predominant form (gametophyte or sporophyte) and the ploidy (haploid or diploid of a lycophyte?
Sporophyte
Diploid
65
What is the predominant form (gametophyte or sporophyte) and the ploidy (haploid or diploid of fern
Sporophyte
Diploid
66
What is the predominant form (gametophyte or sporophyte) and the ploidy (haploid or diploid of a gymnosperm?
Sporophyte
Diploid
67
What is the predominant form (gametophyte or sporophyte) and the ploidy (haploid or diploid of an angiosperm?
Sporophyte
Diploid
68
As atmospheric CO2 concentration decreases from 350 mya to 145 mya:
True/false: gymnosperms dominated the planet first, followed by the emergence and dominance of lycophytes.
False
69
As atmospheric CO2 concentration decreases from 350 mya to 145 mya:
True/false: algae proliferated on land replacing the bryophytes(non vascular plants)
False
70
As atmospheric CO2 concentration decreases from 350 mya to 145 mya:
True/false: leaves adjusted to different CO2 levels by varying the stomata densities on leaves
True
71
As atmospheric CO2 concentration decreases from 350 mya to 145 mya:
True/false: the great coal forming period on earth occurred in the first part of this time period
True
72
The expansion of angiosperms coincides with a decrease in CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere. as CO2 concentrations decreased, stomates would need to be:
A) more open
B) more closed
C) the same
D) it is impossible to say
A) more open
73
Indicate if the following traits are present only in gymnosperms, only in angiosperms or are in both.
Phloem
Flowers
Seeds
Pollen
Vessel elements
Phloem = both
Flowers = angiosperm
Seeds = both
Pollen = both
Vessel elements = angiosperm
74
What are two potential explanations for the rapid diversification of angiosperms in the past ~100 million years?
1. Co-evolution with animal pollinators
2. Changes in CO2 levels lead to the evolution of C4 photosynthesis
Other explanations include:
Faster transport of water through the xylem vessels (vessel elements)
Structural fibers to grow taller and faster.
75
Which of the following statements are true about biomes and global climate patterns? Select all that apply
A) the same biomes can be found at the same latitude all around the world doe to global climate patterns.
B) biomes are classified by their temperature and pH
C) it is dry at 30 degrees north due to dry descending air from the equator and wet at at 30 degrees south due to wet air rising.
D) if the earth did not have a 23.5 degree tilt, we would not have seasons
A and D
76
Explain how similar characteristics can evolve in plants independently in the same type of biome in different parts of the world. What do we call this process?
The same biomes around the world have similar climates or abiotic conditions (temperature and precipitation)
These similar environmental conditions lead to similar selective pressures which lead to the evolution of similar characteristics
This process is called convergent evolution.
77
Which of the following are characteristics of ALL fungi? Select all that apply.
A) prokaryotic cells
B) are composed of hyphae
C) acquiring nutrition through internal digestion
D) nutrient acquisition via external digestion
E) heterotrophic
F) form fruiting bodies (mushrooms) for dispersal
D and E
78
Which of the following statements correctly explains the relationship between mycorrhizal fungi and plants? Select all that are correct.
A) Fungi functionally expand the area where the plant is able to obtain nutrients.
B) Some plants will not grow without a mycorrhizal association.
C) Mycorrhizae are the only example of symbioses between autotrophs and heterotrophs.
D) Plants typically grow better without a mycorrhizal fungi association.
A and B
79
True/false: Obligate symbiosis occurs when the fitness of one partner in the relationship requires the presence of the other partner.
True
80
True/false: Specialized symbionts can lose structure and entire functions as they become more dependent on their symbiotic relation.
True
81
True/false: Commensal relationships is when one species is negatively affected and there is no impact to the other species (-/0).
False
82
Which of the following statements are TRUE regarding symbioses? Select all correct answers.
A) A symbiotic relationship can be an indirect, short-term interaction.
B) Obligate symbiosis occurs when the fitness of one partner in the relationship requires the presence of the other partner.
C) Symbiosis is synonymous with mutualism.
D) Parasitic relationships can form a symbiotic relationship.
E) Specialized symbionts can lose structure and entire functions as they become more dependent on their symbiotic relation.
B, D and E
83
Which of these factors did NOT contribute to the Cambrian Explosion?
A) When glaciers melted, the increased erosion added minerals and nutrients to the oceans.
B) Gene duplication events related to regulatory genes (Hox genes) enabled rapid diversification of body forms.
C) Carbon dioxide levels increased in the atmosphere, causing an explosion (increase in abundance) of land plants for the animals to eat.
D) The evolution of active predation and their predator-prey coevolution led to rapid diversification.
C) Carbon dioxide levels increased in the atmosphere, causing an explosion (increase in abundance) of land plants for the animals to eat.
84
Label if the following characteristics are shared by all animals or only bilaterians.
Aerobic heterotrophy
Cephalization (head)
Mobile at some stage in life cycle
Hox genes
Aerobic heterotrophy = all animals
Cephalization (head) = only bilaterians
Mobile at some stage in life cycle = all animals
Hox genes = only bilaterians
85
Which of the following pre-adaptations facilitated arthropods moving to land? Select all that apply
A) Jointed appendages
B) Bilateral symmetry
C) Lignified tissue
D) Wings
E) Rigid exoskeleton
A and E
86
Which of the following innovations are responsible for the success of insects? Select all that apply
A) Wings
B) Polyphenism
C) Segmented body plan
D) Mouthpart diversity
E) Rigid exoskeleton
F) Coevolution/Specialization
A, B, D and F
87
Which of the following traits of tetrapod’s evolved before they moved onto land?
A) Lungs
B) Amniotic egg
C) Insulations such as feathers or fur
A) Lungs
88
Which of the following characteristics do NOT distinguish vertebrates from other chordates? Select all that apply.
A) pharynx
B) lateral line
C) vertebrae
D) cranium
B) lateral line ??
89
Indicate if the behavior below explains the proximate or ultimate cause for that behavior.
1. Honeybees preform the waggle dance for other bees and use the relative location of the sun to to indicate the direction of food.
2. Sea turtles swim to the open ocean to avoid predation.
3. Male Anolis lizards preform courtship behaviors to females to gain mating opportunities.
1= proximate
2= ultimate
3= ultimate
90
Which of the following statements are FALSE about animal behavior. Select all that apply.
A) Deceitful signals are rare because they never lead to increased fitness of the sender.
B) Innate behaviors do not require any experience to show the behavior.
C) Only humans have learned behaviors.
D) Genes influence behavior.
E) Honesty can be ensured in signals if they are costly to produce and cannot be faked.
A and C
91
For some primate species, there is no sexual dimorphism. What type of mating system would you predict they have?
A) Monogamy
B) Polyandry (one female and multiple males)
C) Polygyny (one male and multiple females)
D) Multi-male and multi-female troops
A) Monogamy
92
Which of the following statements accurately describe sexual selection and why we typically see males as the sex that compete or have elaborate ornamentation to attract females? Select all statements that are correct.
A) Females invest more in offspring, even at the level of producing the egg compared to the sperm.
B) The limiting factor for males is sperm, so they must impress the females for mating opportunities in order to not waste energy in the expensive production of millions of sperm.
C) Males are always the larger sex, so it is easier for them to compete.
D) Females are typically more limited by the number of offspring she can produce.
A and D
93
Which of the following characteristics differentiate Hominins from other great apes. Select all traits that Hominins have and other great apes do not.
A) bipedal posture
B) longer legs
C) large canines
D) adducted big toe
A, B and D
94
Which of the following statements about human evolution are true? Select all that apply.
A) Tool use is relatively recent and only present in Homo species since the Great Leap Forward
B) Fire is thought to be important for the development of language and culture
C) Hominins were bipedal long before brain size increased
D) Hominins are distinct from other primate species in that their hands and arms are smaller
B, C and D
95
What are some critical roles fungi play in ecosystems?
1. They are a dominant decomposer of dead biomass.
2. Many fungi species have important symbiotic relationships with plants (ectomychorrhizal and endomychorrhizal)
3. Many fungi are parasites and pathogens of plants and animals
4. They play a critical role in the carbon and nitrogen cycles
96
To which taxa are fungi most closely related?
Animals.
97
What characteristics distinguish fungi from animals?
Their modes of nutrition:
- Fungi have external digestion
- animals have internal digestion
All fungi have cell walls made of chitin
98
What are some important derived characteristics of different fungi?
1. Hyphae (contain multiple nuclei)
2. Regular septa (separates nuclei)
3. Spores that are produced externally
4. Spores produced internally
(These are in order of appearance)
99
What are hyphae? (Major morphological feature of many fungi)
Long straw like structures capped at each end containing many nuclei.
The function of hyphae is to absorb nutrients from the environment.
(Early diverging forms of fungi do not have septa in their hyphae).
100
Is the presence of chitin a distinguishing feature of fungi? Why or why not.
No. Arthropods which are animals also have chitin in their exoskeletons.
The distinguishing feature between animals and fungi is that fungi have a cell wall made of chitin.
101
The mycelium is the ______ of a fungus. It is composed of_________
Body; hyphae
102
The fruiting body, and the mycelium are both composed of ________
Hyphae
103
True or false: most fungi have both sexual and asexual life cycles.
True
104
Most of the fungal life cycle is spent in the ________ stage.
Haploid stage
105
The asexual part of the fungi life cycle involves dispersal of _________
Haploid spores
106
The sexual part of the fungal life cycle involves the mating of two ______ and the formation of a diploid zygote
Mycelia
107
Which stage(s) of the fungal lifecycle is diploid.
The zygote stage is the only diploid stage of the fungal lifecycle (this is the haplontic portion of the lifecycle)
108
True/false. Fungi use the alternation of generations lifecycle.
False
109
How does the sexual reproduction by hyphae work in fungi?
1. Hyphae of opposite mating types fuse (+/-)
2. This results in plasmogamy (a small chamber is formed in which there are multiple nuclei from the two different hyphae)
3. Karyogamy - a wall is formed called a zygosporangium and inside the nuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote
4. After the zygote is formed, meiosis takes place almost immediately to form haploid nuclei that are later dispersed as spores.
110
In fungi spores are dispersed by the ______
Fruiting body.
111
What structure is the reproductive structure of many fungi?
The fruiting body. It disperses spores
112
Do all fungi possess fruiting bodies?
No. Yeasts and molds do not.
113
True/false: yeast is a fungi.
True.
114
How do yeasts reproduce?
By budding to reproduce asexually
115
What is the mycelium?
Root like structure of a fungus consisting of many branching hyphae.
116
True/false: one mycelia can be very large and can span for miles.
True
117
How do fungi digest food?
They use absorptive nutrition
1. Hyphae excrete enzymes that breakdown large organic matter to small molecules that can be taken up.
2. Small organic molecules from digested food are imported through the cell wall.
The hyphae provide a large surface area for absorption
The absorption of food at the tip of the hypha enables growth of the hypha
118
Are fungi autotrophic or heterotrophic
They are heterotrophic. Hyphae need O2 and produce CO2
119
True/false: hyphae grow toward their food
True.
120
What are some of the ways (positive and negative) in which fungi interact with humans?
1. Fungi are an important food source for human
2. Yeast are used to make breads which is an important food souce for humans
3. Mold is often associated with spoilage
4. Fungi are used in food production (e.g. cheeses)
5. They can have a positive impact on human health (e.g. penicillin)
121
Name two ways in which fungi are critical to carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus cycles
1. Fungal hyphae extend the ammonium and phosphate nutrient uptake zones for plant roots within the soil.
2. Fungi are the organism breaking down dead plant and animal materials. (They are the only organism that can breakdown lignin in trees).
122
What are the two types of mycorrhizal fungi?
1. Ectomychorrhizal fungi (EMF)
2. Arbuscular mychorrhizal fungi (AMF)
123
Describe the symbiotic relationship plants have with ectomychorrhizal fungi.
Plants provide nutrients to the fungi.
The fungi hyphae extend outward into the soil and also inward between the cells of the plant where the hyphae form a dense continuous sheath around the root of the tree. The fungi supplies essential nutrients to the plant
The fungi take up nitrogen and phosphorus for the plant at distances from the root. (Most nutrients are far from the plant root, due to the plant created nutrient depletion zone)
Plants provide the needed carbs for fungal metabolism (chemiheterotrophy)
It is a mutually beneficial relationship
124
Describe the symbiotic relationship arbuscular mychrorrhizal fungi have with plants
Hyphae extend outward into the soil and also extend inward and penetrate the cell wall of the plant cell and make contact with the plasma membrane
The fungi take up nitrogen and phosphorus for the plant at distances from the root. (Most nutrients are far from the plant root, due to the plant created nutrient depletion zone)
Plants provide the needed carbs for fungal metabolism (chemiheterotrophy)
It is a mutually beneficial relationship
125
Describe the symbiotic relationship fungi have with lichens.
The carbon source for fungus comes from the photosynthesis by the Cyanobacteria or the green algae.
The fungus provides a structure for the lichens to live in.
126
True/false their is a coevolutionary relationship between fungi and insects
True
(E.g. termites and fungi fungus fed wood and grass (pseudo feces) by termites. Fungi provide energy source for developing more termites).
127
Which species of fungi first evolved the capacity to digest lignin and when
How did this innovation influence the O2 levels on earth at the time?
Basidomycetes. The late Carboniferous period
Increased decomposition of wood and increased amount of CO2 released helped to decrease the atmospheric O2 from its high levels and thus placing the carbon cycle back into balance and avoiding another snowball earth
128
_______is any type of close, physical, long-term biological interaction between two biological species
Symbiosis
129
What are the two types of symbiotic relationships?
1. Endosymbiosis
2. Ectosymbiosis
130
What is endosymbiosis?
One in which one organism grows inside another.
(E.g mitochondria in eukaryotic cells)
131
What is ectosymbiosis?
One that takes place in the external world between two organisms
132
Symbiotic relationships can be ______ or _______
Facultative or obligate
133
What is facultative symbiosis?
Occurs when the fitness of a partner in the relationship is NOT Absolutely Dependent on the presence of the other partner
134
What is obligate symbiosis?
Occurs when the fitness of one partner in the relationship REQUIRES the presence of the other partner
These relationships are the evolutionary result of ecological specialization
135
What are the four main types of species interactions?
(-/-) = competition: two species have a negative impact on one another.
(+/-) = predation/herbivory/parasitism: species 1 may have a negative impact on a species on 2, but species 2 has a positive impact on on species 1.
(+/0) commensalism: species one may have no impact on species 2, but species 2 has a positive impact on species 1.
(+/+) = mutualism: both species have a positive impact on each other.
136
What is the name of a +/+ symbiotic relationship?
What is an example?
Mutualism
Rhizobium bacteria and legumes: plant provides carbs for bacteria and bacteria provides the ammonia for the plant to grow.
137
What is the name of a +/0 symbiotic relationship?
What is an example?
Commensalism
Epitphytic orchid on a host tree
These kinds of relationships are hard to find in nature.
138
What is the name of a +/- symbiotic relationship?
What is an example?
Predation/herbivory/parasitism
Predator/prey. The lynx/hare population cycles (population increases and decreases)
Parasitism: mistletoe grows on the branches of trees and a xylem parasites
139
What is acclimation?
Where a genotype can express multiple phenotypes in response to changing environmental conditions
140
What is the name of a -/- symbiotic relationship?
What is an example?
Competition
Large and small seed plants: larger plants otshade smaller plants but indirect competition between other species reduce the densities of large plants
141
True/false: parasitism often leads to an evolutionary arms race.
True
There is evolution in the parasite attacking the host and changes and evolutionary response in the host.
E.g. mosquitos that cause malaria and humans
142
This type of symbiotic relationship involves the trading of resources or services between two species______
Mutualism (+/+)
143
What is an example of a mutualism where services are exchanged?
Acacia and ant species: the plant provides a home to protect the ant from predators and the ant provides the plant protection from other insects and plants
144
True/false: symbioses often involve the loss of structures, functions and genes.
True
This loss is adaptive.
145
What is the sister taxa of animals?
Choanoflagellates
They are a single celled organism
146
What are the characteristics of a choanoflagellate?
Single celled
Movement of flagellum water trough the collar to help them collect food and also helps them swim
They are heterotrophs that feed by phagocytosis
They can be solitary or form small colonies.
147
_______ are the most basal animal and they share similarities with_______
Sponges; choanoflagellates
148
What are the similarities and differences between sponges and choanoflagellates?
They both move through water using flagella
Differences:
-sponges are multicellular and have specialized cell types w/ specialized functions (one of these specialized cell types resembles a choanoflagellate)
149
What are the characteristic features of an animal?
1. Multicellular aerobic heterotroph
2. They are mobile during at least one stage of the life cycle
3. They use sexual reproduction and have a diplontic lifecycle
4. Specialized tissues are derived from different layers formed during the early stages of development
150
True/false: development of each animal species evolved from the same basic body plan
True
Zygote > 8 cell stage> blastula > blastopore > gastrulation
151
True/false: plants evolved before animals
False
152
What is the Cambrian explosion?
The sudden rise in the diversity of animal fossils.
153
True/false: All the major animal phyla are predicted to have already evolved before the Cambrian explosion.
True
154
The ediacaran period is the period immediately proceeding the Cambrian.
What were some characteristics of ediacaran animals?
1. Mostly sessile or slow moving meanderers on the bottom of the ocean
2. Fed mostly on the microbial mat on the ocean floor or on free floating microbes.
3. Soft bodied, lacking shells
4. No eyes or other complex sensory systems. Limited ability to orient in the environment
155
What are some characteristics of Cambrian animals?
1. Mobile borrowers and swimmers
2. The first swimming animals (they were chordates)
3. Shelled animals rapidly diversified (shells provide protection from predators)
4. Active predators on the sea floor and nutrient columns.
5. First appearance of hard exoskeletons and spines
6. First appearance of bilateral symmetry
7. First appearance of complex eyes
8. Great diversification of animal anatomy and physiology
156
What lead to all the diversity found in Cambrian animals?
1. Change in environmental conditions (increased rate of continental erosion during glacial melting lead to increased availability of nutrients. Increased O2 allowed for higher levels of activity)
2. Evolution of the bilaterian developmental tool kit ( homeobox gene duplications, independent evolution of nervous systems).
3. Changes in ecological interactions (increased O2 allowed for evo of active predation and coevolutionary predictor/prey relationships gave rise to sensory systems and exoskeletons.)
157
What are the two main groups bilateral animals are divided into?
1) deuterostomes
2) protostomes
158
What distinguishes protostomes and deuterostomes from cnidarians?
The development of an Additional germ layer.
Cnidarians are are diploblastic
Bilaterians are triploblastic
159
What distinguishes protostoms from deuterostomes?
In deuterostomes the bladtopore becomes the anus
In protostomes, the blastopore becomes the mouth
160
What are Hox genes?
They are the master control genes that control the development of the overall body plan by controlling the fate of groups of cells.
Hox genes are present in all bilaterians. Sponges have Hox like genes but no Hox genes
161
Hox gene expression defines the _____ and ______ ends of the bilaterian body plan
Anterior and posterior
It is this gradient that is the origin of segmentation of animal bodies.
162
True/false. Segmentation of the body sets the stage for the development of localized organ systems.
True.
163
True/false: cephalization arose independently many times in animals
True
164
What is adaptive radiation?
The rapid production from a single lineage to many descendant species.
Single linage diversifies quickly
165
What are the 3 hallmarks of an adaptive radiation?
1) they compose a monophyletic group
2) they speciated rapidly
3) they diversified into many ecological niches.
Trilobites are an example of adaptive radiation (over 500 species)
166
Are arthropods protostomes or deuterostomes?
They are protostomes
167
Protostomes are divided into two groups: ecdysozoa and lophotrochozoan. What group do arthropods fall into?
Ecdysozoa
168
What are the distinctive characteristics of Ecdysozoa?
1. They have a 3 to 4 layer cuticle which is periodically molted (this process is called ecdysis)
2. Because of this, they have an unusual growth pattern (growth is incremental).
169
What are the four main groups of arthropods?
Chelicerates (spiders, horseshoe crabs)
Myriapods (centipedes and millipedes)
Crustaceans (lobsters, shrimp)
Hexapoda (insects).
170
Of the four main groups of arthropods, which is the most numerous?
Hexapods (insects)
171
What are the characteristic features of the arthropod body plan? (5)
1. Jointed appendages
2. Compound eyes
3. Rigid cuticular exoskeleton
4. Segmented body with fusion
5. Open circulatory system
172
True/false: Hox genes are responsible for segments.
True
173
True/false: the first arthropods to colonize land were predators
True
174
For animals, what were some of the challenges to living on land?
1. Gravity- air does not support animal bodies as well as water. Must have own support system
2. Solar radiation- air doesn’t filter UV radiation as well as water.
3. Dehydration- low water content in air means water moves out of animal bodies to air
4. Respiration- gasses diffuse faster in air than in water.
5. Temperature- air has more variation in temperature due to its low specific heat
6. Movement- air does not provide buoyancy. Must be able to move on substrate or fly.
175
What are the 2 pre adaptations arthropods had which made them so successful at invading land?
1. Hard exoskeletons-
- provided support against gravity
- it’s composition defends against UV
- it’s composition helps prevent H2O loss
- color helps thermoregulation
2. Jointed Appendages-
- legs allow for locomotion over solid substrates
176
What are the main arthropod innovations that allow for living on land? (4)
1. Tracheal system-
- independent evolved in myriapods, hexapods and chelicerates
- evolved to reduce water loss
- gas exchange does not involve circulatory system
- allows for larger body size
2. Book lungs
- only found in chilcerates
- evolved to reduce water loss
- work in concert with the circulatory system
- work independently of the tracheal system
3. Malpigiphan tubules (excretion)
- evolved to reduce water loss
4. Spermatophores (reproduction)
- packet of sperm left in the environment to be picked up or deposited directly
- this reduces dessication
177
The success of insects is due to four innovations. What are they?
1. Mouthparts- (large variety of feeding structures that allow them to exploit a wide range of food sources)
2. Polyphenisms- (allows for individuals of a single species to exploit two very different environments).
3. Wings - (insects are the only invertebrates that fly. Gives them increased mobility to capture prey, avoid enemies, harsh conditions and colonize new habitats).
4. Coevolution with angiosperms - (evolved specialized relationships with angiosperms as pollinators and herbivores)
178
What is the basic body plan of an insect?
Segmented: head, thorax and abdomen
Tracheal system for gas exchange
Malpighian tube for excretion
179
What is the difference between complete and incomplete metamorphosis?
Complete = larvae look completely different than adult (they fill different ecological roles which helps reduce competition for resources)
Incomplete = larvae looks a small adult
180
True/false: the origin of flight in insects may be due to increased O2 levels in the Carboniferous?
True. The air density was higher
181
What is eusocial behavior?
living in a cooperative group in which usually one female and several males are reproductively active and the nonbreeding individuals care for the young or protect and provide for the group.
182
True/false: eusociality has evolved many times across species.
True
183
True/false: individuals will forgo reproduction if it helps a close relative to reproduce mor than the individual loss
True
Relatives share genes, so some of your alleles will pass on even if it is not through you.
184
What is inclusive fitness?
Direct fitness - indirect fitness
)the ability of an individual to transmit genes to the next generation, including genes shared with relatives. In accordance with this rule, an individual's inclusive fitness can depend, in part, on altruistic behavior and cooperation.)
185
What is direct fitness?
Fitness derived from an individual’s own offspring
186
What is indirect fitness?
Derived from helping relatives produce more offspring than they could produce on their own
187
What is kin selection?
Natural selection that acts through benefits to relatives and results in increased indirect fitness.
It decreases direct fitness but increases indirect fitness, resulting in overall increase in inclusive fitness
188
True/false: inclusive fitness/ Hamilton’s rule explains altruistic behavior
True
189
What is Hamilton’s rule?
Altruistic behavior will evolve when the degree of relatedness (r) is multiplied by the benefits (B) of the recipient is greater than the cost (C) to the donor
r X B > C
190
True/false: eusociality has evolved many times in Hymenoptera
True
191
What is tagmosis?
The partition of the arthropod body plan into discrete regions
192
Are vertebrates deuterostomes or protostomes
Deuterostomes
193
Which group is the sister group to chordates?
Tunicates.
194
What is a tunicate?
Sessile filter feeder with a sack like body.
Larval tunicates have the head, tail, pharynx, and notocord that are characteristic of vertebrates. Some of the characteristics are lost during development
195
What are the key characteristics of the body plan of chordata? (4)
1. Notochord
2. Dorsal hollow nerve cord
3. Pharynx and pharyngeal slits
4. Post anal tail
196
What is the notochord?
Provides flexible structural support and evolves into the vertebrae
197
What is the dorsal hollow nerve cord?
Structure that ultimately evolves into the spinal cord carrying nerves to and from the brain in vertebrate vertebrates
198
What is the pharynx and pharyngeal gill slits?
Structure that gives rise to gill slits in fish
199
What is the post anal tail?
Aids in swimming (structure used in locomotion)
200
True/false: the cranium, vertebrate, and paired sense organs arose with vertebrata?
True
201
List some traits that many, but not all vertebrates have.
1. Lateral line: line of mechano receptors along the body surface that detect the movement of water (fish)
2. Electro reception- allows fish to detect small electrical fields in water
3. Muscular pharynx and gill ventilation. Fish gills use countercurrent exchange
202
How is countercurrent exchange different from concurrent exchange
Counter correct exchange allows for more efficient exchange at gasses because the gradient is maintained
In concurrent exchange. The gradient equalizes at 50% and stops
203
What are the traits of the earliest vertebrates?
1. Well endowed with sensory systems
2. A distinct head and brain (cephalization)
3. A very effective respiratory system
4. A chordate locomor system
5. Bony skeletal system including jaws and vertebrae.
204
Which taxa is the sister taxa to tetrapods?
Lungfish
205
What are the two pre adaptations that allowed tetrapods to move onto land?
1. Lobed fins
2. Lungs
206
What is the most basal group of tetrapods?
Amphibians
207
Which is the most basal trait of tetrapods?
Limbs
208
What is endothermy?
Produces adequate heat to warm its own tissue
209
What is ectothermy?
Relies on heat from the environment.
210
True/false: all mammals are endotherms
True
211
What are some advantages and disadvantages of ectothermy?
Pros:
- low energy strategy
- can have very small size
Cons:
- limited to warm habitats
- can’t be active on cold cloudy days or nights
212
What are some advantages and disadvantages of endothermy?
Pros:
- enzymes can be tuned to specific temperatures
- always ready to go
- can live in cold places
- can control developmental temperatures
Cons:
- very expensive (5 10 10x)
- need insulation
- can’t be small
- need a mechanism of evaporative cooling
213
List some traits that arose by convergent evolution between birds and mammals.
1. Respiratory turbinates ( allow for the conservation of both water and heat in cold environments).
2. Four chambered heart ( blood that comes from lungs is pumped to the rest of the body)
3) upright parasagittal posture- (allows for respiratory coupling with locomotion).
4) communication systems and hearing (communication systems that rely on hearing)
214
Biodiversity can be considered at 3 scales. What are they?
1. Genetic diversity (identifiable and distinct genetic line with in a species)
2. Species diversity (# of identifiable unique species at a location or time period
3. Functional diversity- services or functional considerations
215
What are some examples of events that have caused mass extinctions?
Very large meteors
Snowball earth
Volcanism
Warm and hypoxia oceans
216
Extinction events prior to the Cambrian were due to what kind of event.
Snowball earth
217
All snowball earth events were due to ______processes
Biological
218
What has been a major driver of mass extinction events after the Cambrian
Volcanism
219
What was responsible for the Cretaceous extinction?
A very large meteor
220
What is responsible for the 6th mass extinction now underway in the Anthropocene
Humans/human activity
221
Name the four major threats to biodiversity.
1. Habitat destruction (removal of the habitat in which an organism is living, much of this is due to agriculture. Humans eat too high on the food chain)
2. Introduced species (species introduced into a region in which they are not native).
3. Over exploitation (not every food source is sustainable. We can over fish, over graze etc.
4. Climate change (climate change is indirectly affecting the abundances of species).
222
What is a climate tipping point?
The point at which the climate hits a certain point where it is not able to go back to the way it was
223
What are ecosystem services and what are the four main types?
Ecosystem services are benefits provided to humans by biodiversity/ healthy natural environment. ( e.g) such as cleaner air and water.
4 main types are:
1) provisioning services- (food, water, wood, fuel)
2) supporting services- (nutrient cycling, soil formation, habitat provision)
3) regulating services- (climate regulation, flood regulation, water purification)
4) cultural services- (spiritual/ aesthetic, educational, recreational).
224
True/false: increased species diversity positively impacts each type of ecosystem service
True
225
As _______ is lost, the capacity of an ecosystem to perform certain features is diminished, and therefore, the magnitude of an ecosystem service is diminished and that diminishes ________
Biodiversity
Human well being
226
What is green infrastructure?
Urban engineered landscape features incorporating plants and ecological processes.
It is often used for storm water management, water quality, improvement, creating nature in cities and aesthetics
