Final exam Flashcards
Cross-sectional design
We collect data from different groups of people at a single point in time
Longitudinal design
We collect data from each person at different points in time
Psychoanalytic theory founders
Freud and Erikson
Cognitive developmental theory founders
Piaget and Kohlberg
Piaget’s Theory of cognitive development
Children’s minds are not miniature versions of adult minds. They have profound quantitative differences. The child is active in their learning.
Piagets stage one of development
sensorimotor intelligence stage
Stage one of Piaget’s stages for intellectual growth. Object permanence. Birth - 2
According to Vygotsky, cognitive development results, at least in part, from
Scaffolding during social interaction with others
Piagets stage two of development
preoperational stage
Stage two of piagets theory. Mental representations but prelogical/ egocentric. Conservation a challenge. Ages 2-7
Piagets stage three of development
concrete operational stage
Stage three of piagets theory. Mental operations, but only for psychical/ concrete materials (add/subtract) Age 7-11
Piagets stage four of development
formal operational stage
Stage 4 of piagets theory. Hypothetical reasoning. Mental operations on abstract concepts, hypothesize. Age 11 and up
Critiques of Piaget’s Theory
Stages are too rigid an underestimate children’s abilities
Not universal- western bias?
object permanence
Infants 8 months or less
Out of sight out of mind. No effort to retrieve hidden objects. Does not exist if cant be seen
Infants 9 to 12 months
Search only where it was last found. A not b effect.
Object does not exist independent of child’s actions
Infant 12-18 months
Understand that objects continue to exist but they can be moved when out of sight
conservation
An extension of object permanence
Understanding objects have a fundamental essence that continues to exist despite changes in form, presentation or appearance.
Theory of mind
The appreciation that other people may think differently, and that what they think may guide their behavior rather than how things really are
People can have false beliefs
At five years old, Aisha is better able to understand her friend’s feelings as compared to when she was three years of age. Aisha is acquiring a _________________?
Theory of mind
In attachment theory caregivers act as
A safe haven and a safe base
Stranger Situation Procedure
Developed by Ainsworth and her colleagues for studying separation anxiety and for identifying differences between children in how they react to separation from their mothers.
Kohlbergs theory of morality pre conventional morality stage
Stage 1
Focus on satisfying their own needs and avoiding punishment
Level 1- avoid punishment- won’t do it to avoid punishment
Level 2- reward- what can i get out of this
Kohlbergs theory of morality conventional morality stage
Stage 2
Focuses on social approval
Level 3- gain approval and avoid disapproval of others
Level 4- ridged codes of law and order- won’t to do it cause i don’t want to break the law
Kohlbergs theory of morality post conventional morality stage
Stage 3
Focus on abstract ideas
Level 5- social construct agreed upon for public good
Level 6- abstract ethical principles that determine one’s own moral codes
In Piagets theory, what are the two processes that together account for adaptation of cognitive schemas after encountering new experiences?
encountering new experiences?
Assimilation and accommodation
Assimilation
new information “assimilated” into existing schemas
Young Boris, only a bit over 18 months of age, has been fooled by his parents. In order to get him to willingly take a children’s chewable vitamin every day they have taught him that it is a “lolly”. Now, whenever he sees any product that is small and brightly coloured he says “lolly! YUUUUUM!” and tries to put it into his mouth. Boris’ attempt to make the new stimulus consistent with his mental structures is an example of
Assimilation
Accommodation
schemas updated to accommodate new information
Assimilation and accommodation example
A child who believes the earth is flat faces a challenge to her understanding when she learns that the earth is round. When the child’s existing beliefs can no longer assimilate new information, her beliefs undergo accommodation to more accurately reflect the new information.
A child’s moral reasoning focuses on avoiding punishment and obtaining personal rewards. Their level of moral development is:
Preconventional
Secure attachment
50-60%) separation distress, reunion terminates, distress, flexibly resumes exploration
Magda is being observed as she plays in a room with her mother. She goes to the toys in the room, but occasionally looks back at the mother to make sure she is there. After a quick smile exchanged between mother and child Magda goes back to the task of building with the toys. When her mother leaves the room she becomes moderately upset but is easily soothed by contact with her mother when she returns. What type of attachment does Magda have with her mother?
Secure
Insecure Anxious-Ambivalent
(15-20%) extreme separation distress, not terminated by reunion, unable to resume exploration
Insecure Avoidant
(15-20%) limited separation distress, limited response to mother on reunion, exploration focus
Disorganised
(5-10%) no coherent strategy – confusing/contradictory or bizarre behaviour
Psychoanalytic theory opedius and electra
Oedipus complex (males relate more to father); Electra complex (females relate more to mother)
- Developed my Sigmund Freud. Was said that during a child’s phallic stage, they would develop one of the comples’s.
- Essentially meant that unconsciously they developed a crush on the opposite sex parent. However, they would become afraid the same-sex parent would find out, so they would bond with them.
Khlberg (gender constancy)
- Children learn gender and are aware of the gender of others and themselves by the age of three. However, at these ages they still do not understand that people cannot change genders like clothes, names or behaviour.
- Theorised that children behave in gender-appropriate ways after they understand that gender permanent, which occurs at the age of 7. At which point they model the behaviour of members of the same sex.
- Concept that a persons sex is a permanent attribute ties to underlying biological properties.
Gender schema theory
- Martin and Halverson describe two types of sex-related schemas: in-group schemas (the group which a person identifies): and out-group schemas (the opposite group)
Baumrind’s parenting styles authoritative
high warmth, high control (but “democratic” control – perspective taking, reasoned discipline)
Authoritarian parenting style
low warmth, high control “I am the boss”, may become abusive
Permissive
high warmth, low control parent like a peer
Uninvolved
low warmth, low control - neglect
Authoritative parents are __________ disciplinarians and they are ___________ when it comes to engagement and shared activities with their child.
Firm, warm
Yerkes-Dodson Law (1908)
The law dictates that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point.
primary appraisal
Interpretation or evaluation of a situation
Relevance / salience and valence
Is it important for me? Is it good or bad?
Secondary appraisal
Interpretation or evaluation of a situation
Do I have the capacity to deal with this?
If the situation is a stressor, then no
challenge vs threat appraisal
Opportunity to grow, learn, show skills vs something that will harm you
Optimistic people tend to appraise positively while negative people tend to appraise negatively
Coping
Behaviors and thought an individual engages in o deal with a stressful situation
reappraisal
Type of coping. different appraisal. Trying to reframe the situation
Acceptance
Type of coping. accept situation when you can’t control it
Distraction
Type of coping. take mind off it
Rumination
Type of coping. repetitive thinking/ going over situations. General negative but can be useful
Placebo effect
positive effect results not only from any active treatment, but purely from patients belief in pr expectations of treatment
Explicit attitudes
likes and dislikes that we are consciously aware of
Implicit attitudes
evaluations that are non-conscious.
what was Milgram’s Obedience Studies
- How compliant would people be if they were directly given orders?
– see if the group could pressure the S to deliver shocks to a protesting victim
- organisational psychology
is the scientific study and application of psychological principles to organisations and the workplace.
One of the themes to emerge from Milgram’s paradigm is:
The less the psychological distance between the teacher and the experimenter, the greater the obedience.
Visual pathways
- Information from the right side of space is processed in the left hemisphere
- And vice versa
- This is made possible by the optic chiasm
The Retina
- There retina is a network of neurons covering the back of the eye
Blind spot
- Where the optic nerve leaves the eye there are no photoreceptors. An image falling on this spot is invisible
- Close your right eye and stare at the plus
- The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eyeball is known as the Blind spot
centre-surrounded receptive fields
ganglion cell receptive fields have two concentric regions
on-centre/off-surround cells
- excited by light falling on the central region
- inhibited by light falling on the surround
off-centre/on-surround cells do the opposite
Flashbulb memory
an accurate and exceptionally vivid long-lasting memory for the circumstances surrounding learning about a dramatic event.
it is none of the following:
It is a type of implicit memory
It is a type of echoic memory
It is both iconic and echoic memory
Who is reputed to have first coined the term ‘industrial psychology’?
W.L.Bryan
Cognitive psychology
is the study of our mental processes. Cognitive psychology explores the mechanisms involved in attention, perception, memory, thinking, language, intelligence and problem solving.
There is a loud bang across the room and you immediately and reflexively turn your head to see what the cause was. This is an example of:
Bottom-up attentional selection
Bottom-up selection
Stimulus properties that capture your attention (e.g., a flash of light, loud noise)
Top-down selection
Goal-driven selection of information (e.g., finding your keys on a cluttered desk, searching for Wally)
Change blindness
Change blindness is a result of a failure to retain and/or compare information across time or views.
Inattentional Blindness
is a failure to notice a fully-visible, but unexpected event/object when attention is engaged on another task.
You are meeting your friend at a concert but you’re not sure where. You scan the crowd outside the concert starting from the back and progressively search the space closer and closer to you. Then you remember that he almost always wears his favourite bright green t-shirt so you try and find him in the crowd by searching for the colour green. What attentional searches did you employ?
Spatial then feature based
To prevent accidents a number of companies have developed “heads-up” displays that project dashboard information (eg speed) onto the windscreen. The logic is that it allows people to register this information without taking their eyes off the road. What attentional phenomenon suggests that this is not a complete solution?
Inattention blindness
Spatial neglect
after damage to one hemisphere of the brain, a deficit in attention to the opposite side of space is observed
Simultagnosia
inability to perceive more than a single object at a time
Pseudoscience warning signs
- Ad hoc immunizing hypothesis
- Lack of self-correction
-Overreliance on anecdotes
Scientific skepticism
approach of evaluating all claims with an open mind but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them
Dr Proctor designs an experimental test of his theory of aggression against a competing theory. After conducting the appropriate statistical tests, he finds that the data are better explained by the competing theory. His willingness to accept the evidence that another theory is superior is a characteristic of __________
scientific skepticism
The model that first argued that there is more to health than merely the absence of disease, as discussed in the lectures, was which of the following?
The illness-wellness continuum
nocebo effect
Negative result not from any active treatment
I take a pill that my friend tells me will increase physiological arousal. After taking it I start to feel light-headed, spacey, jittery and panicked. Two hours later my friend tells me the pill was inert (it was just a sugar pill, with nothing else in it). This is a demonstration of:
The nocebo effect
Expectancy theory
If you expect something you are more likely to see/ identify it
As discussed in lectures, there are multiple physical connections between the brain and the body, where signals can move from certain body parts (eg the gastrointestinal system or GI system) to the brain, and vice versa. The relevance of this information for the field of psychology is that:
Therapies that target GI health (eg dietary interventions) might benefit mental health conditions and therapies that target psychological processes (eg cognitive behaviour therapy) might benefit GI health conditions
Classical conditioning
Associating things together
operant conditioning
Behaviour that leads to positive outcomes or prevent negative outcomes is strengthened.
Cognitive dissonance
A feeling of discomfort caused by performing an action that is inconsistent with one’s attitudes
When we experience an unpleasant state of tension between two or more conflicting thoughts, we are experiencing ____________.
Cognitive dissonance
Adaptive coping skills
Self comforting, problem solving, information seeking, accommodation, negotiation, support seeking
Non adaptive coping skills
Delegation, helplessness, escape, submission, opposition, social isolation
Door in the face
asking for a large request followed by a small request
Foot-In-The-Door Persuasion
Small request followed by a large request
Low hall technique
After initial agreement to a request hidden costs are revealed
Fredrick Taylor
Taylorism. Goal to optimize productivity through the scientific selection, training and development of employees
Hawthorne Studies
Goal go test relationship between work productivity and light intensity. study conducted at western electrical company. Found performance of a group of employees increase irrespective of surroundings know as the Hawthorne effect. Continued engagement likely to cue participants they need to change their behavior.
What was the main outcome of the Hawthorne Studies?
Perceived ‘engagement’ led to improvements in performance.
In Stanley Milgram’s classic study on obedience, the teacher was the _________, whereas the learner was the ____________.
Naive subject; confederate
Occupational hazards
Most hazardous industries for occupational accidents
Heat, vibration, cold, noise, workload, fatigue, morale
Transport, postal and warehousing, agriculture forestry and fishing, and construction
A charismatic leader is said to exhibit qualities of what type of leadership?
Transformational
Transformational leadership
is defined as a leadership approach that causes change in individuals and social systems.
Transactional leadership
also known as managerial leadership, is a leadership style where leaders rely on rewards and punishments to achieve optimal job performance from their subordinates. The transactional executive leadership model is based on an exchange or transaction.
Perception error
Attention error. Lapse
Decision error
Decision error. Mistake
In the context of human error, and mistake is also referred to as:
A decision error
Response error
Action error. Slip
Sensation vs perception
Sensation is detection of physical energy by sense organs. Perception is the brains interpretation of sensory inputs
Taste (Gustation)
Taste receptors are in clumps. Taste ds located on small projections on the tongue called papillae. Respond ti chemicals dissolved in saliva. 5 chemicals are salt, sweet, sour, bitter, umami
Bumps on the tounge are called ___________ and contain numerous __________.
Papillae; taste buds
smell (olfaction)
Only dissolved chemicals in mucus activate smell receptors. All smells are a combination of the 7 primary receptions.
Sensory integration
simultaneous activation of senses.
Touch (haptic)
The layers of skin contain a large array of receptors. Conveys info about touch, temperature, and pain
somatosensory cortex
Touch information conveyed to the correct at top of brain. The more important parts of the body have larger parts devoted to them
Vestibular system
Provides us with info about accelerations we are undergoing and about orientation relative to vertical. In the inner ear next to the cochlea and has 2 components
semicircular canals
One part of the vestibular system. Provides info on angular accelerations of our head in all 3 dimensions and allows us to maintain balance
The vestibular senses rely on three __________, which are located in the inner ear. They are fluid filled structures that provide information about balance and equilibrium.
Semicircular canals
utricle and saccule
One last of the vestibular system. Provides info about linear acceleration including, pull of gravity, helping us remain upright. Hair cells project into thick fluid which tends to remain stationary as our heads move
Body sense (proprioception)
Body sense (proprioception)
Receptors in muscles and joints to provide brain with info about angles and tensions in our limbs
Hearing (audition)
Sound is a pressure wave in air. Sound waves vary in solitude and frequency
Our sense of hearing is otherwise known as
Audition
Frequency of sound waves
The number of times per second a sound goes from high pressure to low pressure to high pressure. High frequency equals high pitch. Low frequency is at the end furthest form the staples and high frequency is closest
Amplitude of sound waves
Amount of change in airwaves form middle of wave to top of wave. High amplitude equal loud
Hearing process
Tympanic membrane vibrates, ossicles move the basilar membrane up and down causing hair cells to fire nerve impulses along the auditory nerve
Once sound waves have been transduced into neural activity, the _________ carries them to the brain for auditory perception.
Auditory nerve
Conductive deafness
Caused by impediment to transmission of sound wave to basilar membrane
sensorineural deafness
Caused by damage to some part of the neural apparatus of hearing.
Cornea
The clear film that protects the eye
Pupil
Grows or shrinks to let more or less light in
Iris
Small nodules that expand and contract to change the size to pupil
Retina
The back of the eye activated by light and transmits info to the brain. Neurons cover the back of the eye
Contains mostly rods
Fovea
Point on retina where light from whatever you are looking directly at hits
The fovea contains:
Primarily cones
Optic chiasm
the point in the brain where the visual field information from each eye “crosses over” to the appropriate side of the brain for processing. Things from right eye processed on left hemisphere
Lateralisation of processing
ome tasks are preferentially performed on the left or right hemisphere
rods and cones of the retina
Covert light energy into neural signals
Rods work better in low light. lots around fovea but few at fovea. More sensitive and have neural convergence. But sacrifice resolution
Cones work better in high light. Lots at fovea and not many on sides
Blind spot
Where the optic nerve leaves go eye there are not photoreceptors so nothing can be seen in that spot. It’s on the nasal side of the retina
On center off surround cells
Excited by light falling on central region and inhibited by light falling on surround
off-center on-surround cells
Excited by light on surround and inhibited by light on center.
Net effect of ganglion cells
When light hits both the center and the surround the cell has the same response as if it was not exposed to light
Color vision
Light forms wavelengths. And different wavelengths have different hues. Red are long and violet are short.
Convergence
When looking at an object your eyes point toward it so the image falls on your fovea
Accommodation of eyes
Lens adjust to bring it into focus
What structure changes its shape to focus light on the retina?
Lens
stereopsis
Your eyes have slightly different views of the world.
Selective attention
process of selecting one sensory channel and ignoring or minimizing others
Change blindness
failure to detect obvious changes in one’s environment
A result of our failure to retain and/or compare infor across time or views
a abrupt changes in a visual scene typically attract attention
After a dinner out with a friend you signal to your server that you are ready for your bill. You are really surprised when your friend tells you that it is not the person who has been serving you all night. This scenario comes closest to resembling:
Change blindness
Autobiographical/ episodic memory
Memory of something that happened to you
Semantic memory
general knowledge shared by others
Lexical / semantic memory
Name memories and word memories
prospective memory
Memory of the future such as remembering to buy milk on way home
Procedural memory
Memory of a procedure or action
Multistore Model of Memory
Stimulus goes into sensory memory which goes into short term memory. This info moves to long term memory through rehearsal.
Sensory memory
Preserves information briefly. (.5-2 scords) in its original sensory format
Visual- iconic memory (color, shape, ect)
Auditory: echoic memory (sound, pitch, ect)
Touch: tactile memory
Allows sensory information to linger briefly after stimulation is over but it decays rapidly and can not be maintained through rehearsal
Short term memory
Holds information in verbalized (speech) format - recoded to this
Information in immediate consciousness (being attended)
Duration
Delays within 20- 30 seconds if unrehearsed
Can be maintained longer if rehearsed
Capacity
7 plus or minus 2 items (memory span) ( does not account for chunking)
Long term memory
Can be retrieved after attention has been diverted
Lasts minutes to years with an unlimited capacity
Distinction between primary memory vs secondary memory
Primary is short term secondary is long term
Serial position effect
Free recall - recall as many words as possible from, the list, in any order
words at the beginning. of list recalled well (Primacy effect)
words at end of list recalled Well (relevance effect)
Words in middle are recalled less
According to the level-of-processing framework, which of the following type of encoding is expected to produce the best recall for words?
In terms of its meaning
Patient H.M. (Henry Molaison)
Had his hippocampus removed as treatment for intractable epilepsy
Intact remote memory- childhood, nale, ect
Intact short term memory -could carry out conversations and maintain info as long as he kept rehearsing it
inability to form new memories “living in The permanent present”
Could not recognize the doctors who treated him and any people he met since the surgery
Impaired mechanism that transfers info form short term memory to long term memory
Chunking
grouping elements into meaningful units improves performance on short term memory tasks
Short term memory is affected by meaningful info in long term memory → Argues against strictly serial organization from STM to LTM
Maintenance rehearsal
Remember the last word that starts with p results in rehearsal of only the words that start with p until a new p word is said
Not effective for making memory durable
Which of the following is TRUE about chunking?
It indicates that people make use of long term memory to perform a short term memory task.
Social psychologists typically consider attitudes to consist of:
Cognitive, affective and behavioural components
Which of the following is NOT a defining property of resilience?
Experiencing no decline in functioning after adversity
Which of the following most likely represents an unobtrusive influence on attitude?
Using your arms to pull up on a table whilst rating preferences for various neutral stimuli
Patients suffering from anterograde amnesia have deficits in
Retaining personal experiences that occurred since the onset of amnesia
A preschooler identifies a person in a picture as a boy. He then explains that the boy would become a girl if he grew his hair longer and put it in pigtails. The child has not yet achieved:
Gender constancy
Tatiana is an organisational psychologist who has been asked to recommend an intervention to help employees who are feeling distressed at work. She has a pretty good understanding of what issues within the organisation are, but wants to better understand which issue has the MOST effect on wellbeing. Which method of data collection would be most appropriate?
Online surveys
A neuron with an on-centre off-surround receptive field would:
Increase firing in response to light just in the centre
There are two alternative pathways to persuading others. One leads us to evaluate the merits of the persuasive arguments carefully and thoughtfully. This is known as the _____________.
Central route
The name given to our sense of body position is
Proprioception
When given the list of words:
“hill, valley, climb, summit, top, molehill, peak, range, steep”
and asked to recall them, people wrongly produce “mountain” which was not on the list. This phenomenon….
Demonstrates that the act of remembering is an act of reconstruction
Which of the following theories of attachment was effectively discredited by the work of Harry Harlow?
Babies become attached to adults who provide them with nourishment
Implicit attitudes:
Are less susceptible to social desirability than explicit attitudes
The main result from the “SMILES” trial, which investigated the link between diet changes and depression, was that:
Improving ones diet can positively impact depressive symptoms, and we can conclude cause-and-effect from the study
In Mary Ainsworth’s “Strange Situation”, we are most interested in assessing:
How the infant responds to separation from and reunion with his/her mother.
The concept of ‘One Health’ is based on the interrelatedness of…
Animal health, human health and environmental health
The sensation of falling when a lift starts to descend is due to the activation of:
The utricle and saccule
In the context of a threat to safety, rather than take protective action, people may respond with ‘wishful thinking’, ‘fatalism’, and ‘helplessness’. These may help psychologically but do nothing to change the threat or assist with an effective response and are referred to as:
Maladaptive responses
The phenomenon whereby certain types of stimuli are preferentially processed by one side of the brain is known as:
Lateralisation of processing
Which of the following is a fundamental aspect of the definition of pain?
Is both a sensory and emotional experience
__________ theory proposes that we acquire our attitudes by observing our behaviours.
Self-perception
Why should people care about the dangers of pseudoscience?
A lack of critical thinking may lead to poor decisions that affect your personal life and/or the community
PSY1102 tutorials covered effective studying behaviours to increase student learning and retention of information. Which of the following is a scientific reason for why writing notes by hand is more effective for learning than typing notes using a computer?
Most individuals type faster than they write; thus, writing notes encourages summarising of information rather than writing out verbatim and Computers often contain distractions (eg notifications, access to the internet, games etc)
Which of the following is one of the classic warning signs of a pseudoscience?
The use of meaningless psychobabble
Light, a central player in our visual perception of the world, is a form of
Light, a central player in our visual perception of the world, is a form of
Electromagnetic energy
When siblings Babette and Édouard come home from school, Babette is expected to clean any dishes that have been left in the kitchen and to vacuum the family room rug. Édouard on the other hand, is expected to take out the rubbish and, when needed, to mow the lawn. These different responsibilities are examples of gender ___________.
Roles
Which of the following best describes Piaget’s ideas about cognitive development in young children?
he regarded the thinking of a young child as qualitatively different to that of an adult
Which of the following is TRUE about the recency effect in free recall?
It is eliminated by a mental arithmetic filler task presented after the list
Which of the following depth cues depends on information from eye muscles?
Convergence
People’s tendency toward altering their behaviour as a result of group pressure is called
Conformity
Arjun wants to call up and vote for his favourite contestant on a live broadcast talent show, but the number to call flashes past so briefly on the TV screen he doesn’t have time to write it down. To his surprise, however, he has retained a momentary image of the five digit post code. His experience best illustrates ______________.
Iconic sensory memory
The placebo effect is a demonstration of how individuals’ expectations about any treatment can affect their experience of the treatment. Which of the following is an example
All of the options presented
b.
Having an appropriate control condition
c.
Having individuals blinded to their condition allocation (ie individuals do not know if they are in treatment or control condition)
d.
Randomly allocating individuals to the treatment or control condition
e.
None of the options presented
A friend asks you to lend him $2500 to buy a car. You explain that you don’t have that sort of money. He then asks you for $80 to buy a skateboard. This tactic:
Invokes the principle of reciprocity
A key issue in science is providing methods to help people distinguish between accurate, helpful claims and those that are inaccurate and unhelpful. This problem is exacerbated by which of the following signs of pseudoscience?
lack of peer review by other scholars
In an organisation, evidence-based resilience training is MOST useful for
Assisting people to build greater individual coping resources
What is the main principle that underlies Taylorism?
That work should be considered from a scientific perspective
What are the two components of job analysis?
Description and Specification, Analysis and Specification
In a study described in the attention lecture, people drove through a virtual reality city while looking for either a gold or blue arrow at each intersection. When a motorcycle suddenly stopped in front of them they were most likely to crash into it:
When it was the same colour as the arrow they weren’t looking for
According to Locke (1968), what is the most important factor in explaining motivation?
To have a conscious, specific goal in mind.
Which of the following researchers was the most influential in shaping our understanding of conformity?
Solomon Asch
Persuasion is most likely to be successful when the source of the persuasive communication:
Is perceived as likeable and trustworthy
The major difference between pseudoscience and science is that ____________
pseudoscience lacks the safeguards against confirmation biases that characterise science
According to social identity theory, which aspects/s is likely to increase identification with a group membership?
The presence of a relevant out-group
