Final exam

Question 1

An argument is…

Answer 1

a connected series of sentences, statements, or propositions (called “PREMISES”) that are intended to give reasons of some kind for a sentence, statement, or proposition (called the “CONCLUSION”).

Question 2

WTF is that: ∴

Answer 2

therefore sign

Question 3

Premise (reason) Markers:

Answer 3

since, because, for, as, given that

Question 4

Conclusion Markers:

Answer 4

therefore, hence, thus, then, consequently, we may infer, it follows that

Question 5

What does valid mean?

Answer 5

An argument is valid if and only if it is not possible that all of its premises are TRUE and its conclusion FALSE.

Question 6

Types of Assuring:

Answer 6

• Use of Experts
• Using assuring language (I’m sure, I’m certain)
• Abusing the audience (Anyone with a basic level of education would agree that…)

Question 7

Discounting:

Answer 7

Anticipating criticisms and dismissing them

Question 8

Dissecting an Argument

Answer 8

Arguments can logically flow in several ways

Question 9

Strengthening your Argument: Guarding

Answer 9

By weakening the strength of your premise you can guard it from attack

Question 10

Strengthening your Argument: Assuring

Answer 10

If there is a question about the truth value of a premise, the arguer may try to assure the listener that the premise is true.

Question 11

Was ist das: &

Answer 11

“and”

Question 12

~ aand this??

Answer 12

represent “not” or negation

Question 13

v means??

Answer 13

and/OR

Question 14

(Arai, šito neklausk), bet was ist das: ⊃

Answer 14

If then

Question 15

What is inductive argument:

Answer 15

When an argument is not claimed to be valid but is intended only to provide a reason for the conclusion, the argument is inductive.
An Inductive argument is one where it is improbable for the premises to be true and the conclusion false

Question 16

Inference to the Best Explanation (abduction)

Answer 16

Used heavily in science for hypothesis formation

Question 17

Inference to the Best Explanation

Answer 17

(1) OBSERVATION: Your husband comes home after a late night, smelling of women’s perfume and has lipstick on his shirt.
(2) EXPLANATION: The hypothesis that your husband is cheating on you, combined with previously accepted facts and principles, provides a suitably strong explanation of observation 1.
(3) COMPARISON: No other hypothesis provides an explanation nearly as good as that in 2.
(4) CONCLUSION: Your husband cheated on you.

Question 18

Slippery Slope

Answer 18

These types of fallacies occur when we are comparing categories with vague definitions.

Question 19

Equivocation

Answer 19

the ambiguous (dviprasmiškas) meaning of a word to try to further their argument

Question 20

Ad Hominem

Answer 20

Against the Man.
Joe claims x
Joe is stupid
So x is false (or we shouldn’t take it seriously)

Question 21

Ad Hominem (Circumstantial)

Answer 21

“Christianity isn’t true. You just believe in Christianity because you were brought up in a Christian home. If you were brought up in Muslim home, you would be a Muslim now.”

Question 22

Tu Quo Que (Ad Hominem)

Answer 22

Your mom tells you not to smoke because it is bad for you, while smoking a cigarette

Question 23

Appeal to Authority

Answer 23

Often times, when making an argument we will assure our audience by introducing the expert opinion of some authority

Question 24

Genetic Fallacy

Answer 24

This is when the origin of an argument or idea is used as a reason for why the argument is wrong

Question 25

Straw Man

Answer 25

When an argument is strong, an opponent may construct a straw man which he may more easily defeat.

Question 26

Begging the Question

Answer 26

The first, and most common, way of committing this fallacy is by leaving a key premise out of the argument while creating the illusion that nothing more is needed to establish the conclusion

Question 27

Appeals to Emotion

Answer 27

You should let me pass this exam because I have cancer and I’m going to be in a coffin in 6 months

Question 28

Deductive vs Inductive

Answer 28

Deductive arguments can be described in terms of validity and soundness.
Inductive arguments can be described in terms of strength and cogency. (nenuginčijamumas)

Question 29

Causal Reasoning

Answer 29

Sometimes we would like to argue about cause and effect.

Question 30

Sufficient and Necessary Conditions

Answer 30

We can break up the idea of causation into sufficient and necessary conditions.