Final exam Flashcards
An argument is…
a connected series of sentences, statements, or propositions (called “PREMISES”) that are intended to give reasons of some kind for a sentence, statement, or proposition (called the “CONCLUSION”).
WTF is that: ∴
therefore sign
Premise (reason) Markers:
since, because, for, as, given that
Conclusion Markers:
therefore, hence, thus, then, consequently, we may infer, it follows that
What does valid mean?
An argument is valid if and only if it is not possible that all of its premises are TRUE and its conclusion FALSE.
Types of Assuring:
- Use of Experts
- Using assuring language (I’m sure, I’m certain)
- Abusing the audience (Anyone with a basic level of education would agree that…)
Discounting:
Anticipating criticisms and dismissing them
Dissecting an Argument
Arguments can logically flow in several ways
Strengthening your Argument: Guarding
By weakening the strength of your premise you can guard it from attack
Strengthening your Argument: Assuring
If there is a question about the truth value of a premise, the arguer may try to assure the listener that the premise is true.
Was ist das: &
“and”
~ aand this??
represent “not” or negation
v means??
and/OR
(Arai, šito neklausk), bet was ist das: ⊃
If then
What is inductive argument:
When an argument is not claimed to be valid but is intended only to provide a reason for the conclusion, the argument is inductive.
An Inductive argument is one where it is improbable for the premises to be true and the conclusion false
Inference to the Best Explanation (abduction)
Used heavily in science for hypothesis formation
Inference to the Best Explanation
(1) OBSERVATION: Your husband comes home after a late night, smelling of women’s perfume and has lipstick on his shirt.
(2) EXPLANATION: The hypothesis that your husband is cheating on you, combined with previously accepted facts and principles, provides a suitably strong explanation of observation 1.
(3) COMPARISON: No other hypothesis provides an explanation nearly as good as that in 2.
(4) CONCLUSION: Your husband cheated on you.
Slippery Slope
These types of fallacies occur when we are comparing categories with vague definitions.
Equivocation
the ambiguous (dviprasmiškas) meaning of a word to try to further their argument
Ad Hominem
Against the Man.
Joe claims x
Joe is stupid
So x is false (or we shouldn’t take it seriously)
Ad Hominem (Circumstantial)
“Christianity isn’t true. You just believe in Christianity because you were brought up in a Christian home. If you were brought up in Muslim home, you would be a Muslim now.”
Tu Quo Que (Ad Hominem)
Your mom tells you not to smoke because it is bad for you, while smoking a cigarette
Appeal to Authority
Often times, when making an argument we will assure our audience by introducing the expert opinion of some authority
Genetic Fallacy
This is when the origin of an argument or idea is used as a reason for why the argument is wrong
Straw Man
When an argument is strong, an opponent may construct a straw man which he may more easily defeat.
Begging the Question
The first, and most common, way of committing this fallacy is by leaving a key premise out of the argument while creating the illusion that nothing more is needed to establish the conclusion
Appeals to Emotion
You should let me pass this exam because I have cancer and I’m going to be in a coffin in 6 months
Deductive vs Inductive
Deductive arguments can be described in terms of validity and soundness.
Inductive arguments can be described in terms of strength and cogency. (nenuginčijamumas)
Causal Reasoning
Sometimes we would like to argue about cause and effect.
Sufficient and Necessary Conditions
We can break up the idea of causation into sufficient and necessary conditions.
